From the very beginning of their existence, the Etruscan people appeared in the eyes of the Ancient World rich and powerful nation. The self-name of the Etruscans is “Rasena”, their name inspired great fear, constantly appearing in "Annals" which notes: "Even the Alpine tribes, especially the Rhaetians, are of the same origin as the Etruscans"; and Virgil, in his epic about the emergence of Rome, tells in detail about ancient Etruria.
The Etruscan civilization was primarily an urban civilization, in ancient times, which played an important role in the fate of Rome and the entire Western civilization. Etruria fell to the Roman legions by the middle of the 3rd century BC. e., but it has not lost its cultural role. Etruscan priests spoke the Etruscan language both in Tuscany and Rome until the fall of the Roman Empire, that is, until the end of the 5th century AD. e.
Beginning, Greek sailors began to settle on the southern coasts of Italy and Sicily and traded with the inhabitants of Etruscan cities. The inhabitants of Etruria were known to the Greeks as "Tyrrhenians" or "Tyrsenians", and the Romans called them Tusci, hence the current name of Tuscany. According to Tacitus
(“Annals”, IV, 55), during the Roman Empire retained the memory of his distant Etruscan origin; The Lydians even then considered themselves brothers of the Etruscans."Tyrrhenians" is an adjective, most likely formed from the word"tirrha" or "tirra" in Lydia there is a place called Tyrrha - turris - “tower”, that is, “Tyrrhenians” are “people of the citadel”. Root
very common in Etruscan. King Tarchon, brother or son of Tyrrhenus, founded Tarquinia and the dodecapolis -. Names with the root tarch were given to the gods or, the Black Sea region and Asia Minor. The Etruscans are one of the peoples of ancient civilization, survivor of the Indo-European invasion from the north in the period from 2000 to 1000 BC. e., and the catastrophe of the destruction of almost all tribes. The relationship of the Etruscan language with some pre-Hellenic idioms of Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean Sea has been discovered - proves connection Etruscans and the Middle Eastern world . The entire history of the Etruscans unfolded in the Aegean Sea basin, which is where the Etruscans come from religious presentations and rituals, their unique art and
crafts that were previously unknown on Tuscan soil. On the island
spoke a language similar to Etruscan. The Etruscans apparently originated from a mixture of ethnic elements of different origins. There is no doubt the diversity of the roots of the Etruscan people, born through the fusion of various ethnic elements.
The Etruscans have Indo-European roots and appeared on the land of the Apennine Peninsula in the first years of the 7th century BC. e. Etruscan haplogroup G2a3a and G2a3b discovered in Europe; haplogroup G2a3b went to Europe through Starchevo and further through the archaeological culture of Linear Band Pottery, was discovered by archaeologists in the center of Germany.
Etruscan culture had a significant influence on Roman culture : the inhabitants of Rome adopted their writing and the so-called Roman numerals that were originally Etruscan .The Romans adopted the skills of Etruscan city planning, ancient Etruscan customs and religious beliefs and the entire pantheon of Etruscan gods were adopted by the Romans.
Under the Etruscan king Tarquin the Ancient (VI century BC) in Rome drainage of the swampy areas of the city began through irrigation canals, a sewage system was built in Rome sewerage system and built Cloaca maxima, cloaca in Rome is still in effect today.
stood on a high foundation – podium and had only one entrance facing south. The Etruscans built the podium and foundations of temples from stone, and the buildings themselves, arches, vaults ceilings, complex rafter system they were building made of wood. This speaks of an ancient Etruscan tradition masters of wooden architecture A. The Romans are still amazed that The Etruscans built their houses from wood (log houses), and did not build houses from marble.
Rome borrowed their foundations from the Etruscans, the monumental character of Roman architecture was inherited from the Etruscans and embodied in marble and stone. Architectural layout of interior spaces , atriums are the central rooms in Etruscan houses, borrowed by the Romans from the Etruscans. "Signor Piranesi states that,When the Romans first wanted to build massive buildings, the solidity of which amazes us, they were forced to turn to their neighbors for help- Etruscan architects." The Romans built the Capitoline Temple with a southern entrance in all the occupied lands - a copy of the legendary building Etruscan architects Tarquinii and observed the rituals of all Etruscan religious holidays.
The Etruscans were skilled in geodesy and measuring technology, and Roman surveyors learned from them. The division of Italian lands and the territories of all provinces into squares with sides 710 meters - this is the merit of the Etruscans.
In essence, the Etruscan civilization settled on the seven hills of Rome. By the end of the 4th century BC. e. Etruscan letters. Initially, there was a monarchy in Etruscan cities.
Etruscan kings The Tarquins in Rome wore a gold crown, a gold ring and a scepter. Their ceremonial the clothing was a red toga-palmata, and the royal procession was led lictors carried on shoulders Fascia is a sign of the unlimited power of the ruler. The fasces consisted of rods and a hatchet- a ceremonial weapon and symbol of the political and religious power of the Tarquins.
In the 6th century BC. e. the monarchy in Rome was replaced by a republic; the king was replaced, regularly re-elected, officials. The new state was essentially oligarchic, with constant and strong Senate and replaced annually magistrates. All power was in the hands oligarchies, consisting of principes - leading citizens. Aristocratic class– ordo principum – controlled the interests of the community.
Etruscan families had different names – nomen gentilicum, Etruscan “gens” - “gens” - family group and cognomen- family branches, and Each Etruscan had a personal name. The onomastic system of the Etruscans was exactly adopted by the Romans. Onomastics(from ancient Greek ὀνομαστική) - the art of giving names, was adopted by the Romans from the Etruscans.
The Etruscans influenced the history of Rome and the fate of the entire West. Latin peoples were part of the Etruscan confederation, created by religious grounds.
In the 6th century BC. e. The Etruscan League arose, which was a religious association of Etruscan lands. Political meeting Etruscan League was held during the general Etruscan annual religious holidays, a large fair was held, the supreme leader of the Etruscan League was elected, wearing title rex (king), later - sacerdos (high priest), and in Rome - was elected praetor or aedile of the fifteen nations of Etruria.
The symbol of sovereignty survived in Rome after the expulsion Etruscan dynasty Tarquini from Rome to 510 BC e., when the Roman Republic arose, which existed for 500 years.
The loss of Rome was a serious blow for Etruria; difficult battles lay ahead on land and sea with the Roman Republic and with the period 450-350. BC e.
Throughout Roman history, the Romans repeated all religious rituals, performed by the Etruscan kings. During the celebration of triumph, victory over the enemy, a solemn procession went to the Capitol, for a sacrifice to Jupiter, and the commander stood in his war chariot, at the head of a cortege of prisoners and soldiers, and was temporarily likened to the supreme deity.
The city of Rome was founded according to the plan and ritual of the Etruscans. The founding of the city was accompanied by Etruscans sacred rituals. The site of the future city was outlined in a circle by the city line, and along it plowed the ritual furrow with a plow, protecting the future city from the hostile outside world. The plowed circle around the city corresponded to the Etruscan ideas about the Heavenly World - Templum (lat. templum) - “Temple.” The sacred walls of the city were called in Etruscan TULAR Spular (lat. tular spular) became known to the Romans as pomerium.
In the Etruscan city, they necessarily built three main streets, three gates, three temples - dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. The rituals of building Etruscan cities - Etrusco ritu - were adopted by the Romans.
Mundus, a hole in the ground where the souls of ancestors lived, was located on the Palatine Hill in Rome. Throwing a handful of earth brought from the homeland into a common pit (Mundus) is the most important rite when founding a city, since the Etruscans and Italics believed that The souls of ancestors are contained in the native land. That's why, a city founded according to such a ritual became their true homeland, where the souls of their ancestors moved.
Other Etruscan cities were founded and built in Etruria (on the Apennine Peninsula) in compliance with all Etruscan city planning rules and according to religious canons. This is how the Etruscan city was built Volterra, in Etruscan – Velatri, Lucumonius and others were surrounded by high city walls, and the city gate Velatri Porta del Arco, decorated with sculptures - the heads of deities have survived to this day. In Southern Italy, the Etruscans founded the cities of Nola, Acerra, Nocerra and the fortress city of Capua (Italian: Capua), the Etruscan city of Manthua, later Mantua.
The famous ancient Roman roads that still exist today, for example, Via Appia, were built not without the participation of the Etruscans.
The Etruscans built the largest hippodrome Ancient Rome - Circus Maximus, or Great Circus. According to legend, the first chariot racing competitions were held at the hippodrome in the 6th century BC. Etruscan king of Rome Tarquinius Priscus, who was originally from the Etruscan city of Tarquinia.
The ancient tradition of gladiator fights originates from the Etruscan culture of sacrifice, when captured warriors were given a chance to survive, and if the prisoner happened to survive, they believed that it was the will of the gods.
In Etruria, tombs were located outside the city walls - this Etruscan rule was invariably observed throughout the ancient Mediterranean: the settlements of the dead must be separated from the settlements of the living.
The Romans took as a model the design of Etruscan tombs, the interior decoration of tombs, sarcophagi, urns with ashes, as well as the funeral rituals of the Etruscans, who believed in an afterlife similar to earthly life.
The Romans believed in the power of ancient Etruscan oaths that had magical powers, if they are addressed to the Etruscan deities of the Earth. The Etruscans built their houses from wood, a short-lived material, but The Etruscans built their tombs for centuries for eternal life, stone tombs were carved out of rocks, hidden in mounds, decorated with wall with images of feasts, dances and games, and filling the tombs with jewelry, weapons, vases and other valuable items. “Life is a moment, death is forever”
Roman temples were built of stone and marble, but decorated according to the Etruscan style wooden temples that existed in ancient times Kose, Veii, Tarquinia, Volsinia, capital of the Etruscan Confederation.
Found in the Etruscan city of Veii temple (of Apollo), with many life-size terracotta statues of gods, executed with amazing skill, the work of an Etruscan sculptor Vulka.
The Romans introduced almost all the Etruscan gods into their pantheon. The Etruscan gods became Hades, (Aritimi) - Artemis, - Earth, (Etrus. Cel) — Geo (earth). In Etruscan “Cels clan” - Celsclan - “son of the Earth”, “tribe of the Earth”. (Satre) — Saturn; (Turnu), Turan, Turanshna (Etrus.Turansna) - epithet of the goddess Turan - Swan, Swan; - Menerva. Etruscan god of vegetation and fertility, death and rebirth (Etruscan. Pupluna or Fufluna) originated in the city of Populonia. Etruscan Fufluns reigns at symposiums and funeral meals - corresponds to the Roman Bacchus, or Bacchus, the Greek Dionysus.
The supreme gods of the Etruscans were a trinity, which was worshiped in the triple temples - this . The Greek goddess Hecate became the visible embodiment of the triune Etruscan deity. Trinity cult which was worshiped in Etruscan sanctuaries with three walls - each dedicated to one of the three gods - is also present in Cretan-Mycenaean civilization.
Just like the Etruscans, the Romans showed great interest in divination, fortune-telling, and haruspices. Etruscan tombs are often surrounded egg-shaped Etruscan columns
cippi – low stone pillars (like the Scythians’ stone women) with decorations that are a symbol of the divine presence. 
In Etruria, games and dances had a ritual origin and character. Etruscan warriors since ancient times learned military dances in gymnasiums, dancing was not just a variety military training, but also for conquest disposition of the gods of war.
On the frescoes of Etruria we see armed men in helmets, dancing and banging their spears on their shields to the beat - , dedicated god Pyrrhus
The Roman salii - warrior priests - performed a pyrrhic dance in honor of Mars, brutal gladiator fights (lat. Munera gladiatoria) the Romans also borrowed from Etruscan Tuscany in 264 BC. e.
The Etruscans were great lovers of music - to the sounds of a double flute, they fought, went hunting, cooked, and even punished slaves, as the Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle writes with some indignation.
Rome invited Etruscan dancers and mimes to its celebrations, whom the Romans called "histriones" - "histriones"
– the Romans used this term too taken from the Etruscans. According to Titus Livy, Etruscan dancers and mimes, with the rhythm of their movements, pacified the evil gods who sent a terrible scourge to the city of Rome - the plague in 364 BC. e.
The Etruscans owned specific methods of processing gold and silver. Found in 1836 in the Cerveteri mound gold jewelry and the finest engraving of silver and bronze mirrors represent the pinnacle of craftsmanship of the 7th century BC. — at this time Roman jewelry did not exist!
The treasures from the Regolini-Galassi tomb amaze with the perfection and technical ingenuity of amber and bronze jewelry and products chryselephantine, boxes for cosmetics, brooches, combs, necklaces, tiaras, rings, bracelets and archaic earrings testify to the high skill of Etruscan jewelers.
D achievements lead the Etruscans to 7th century BC to a leading position among artists of the Western Mediterranean. In the visual arts one can feel the connection with the Phoenician, Cretan-Mycenaean and , the same ones are depicted fantastic beasts– chimeras, sphinxes and winged horses. Fantastic Etruscan chimera actually represents animal image of the triune deity -, commanding Birth - this is the image of the Goat-nurse, commanding Life - the image of Leo, commanding Death - the image of the Snake.
In the middle of the 3rd century BC. e. Rome subjugated Etruria (Tascana), the military and political role of Etruria was eliminated, but Etruria did not lose its originality. Religious traditions and crafts flourished in Etruria before the Christian era, and Romanization proceeded very slowly. The Romans sent delegates to universal annual religious meeting twelve tribes Etruscans of 12 Etruscan cities in the main Sanctuary of Voltumna – Fanum Voltumnae; it was called "concilium Etruriae".
The cities of southern Etruria near Rome soon fell into decay, and northern Etruria was a mining region- Chiusi, Perugia, Cortona, have preserved the famous production workshops that produced objects made of malleable steel and bronze, Volterra and Arezzo - a large industrial center, Populonia - a metallurgical center ore mining and metal smelting, even under the rule of Rome retained its industrial and commercial power. 
The Etruscans are considered the creators of the first developed civilization on the Apennine Peninsula, whose achievements, long before the Roman Republic, included large cities with remarkable architecture, beautiful metalwork, ceramics, painting and sculpture, extensive drainage and irrigation systems, an alphabet, and later minting of coins. Perhaps the Etruscans were newcomers from across the sea; their first settlements in Italy were prosperous communities located in the central part of its western coast, in an area called Etruria (roughly the territory of modern Tuscany and Lazio). The ancient Greeks knew the Etruscans under the name Tyrrhenians (or Tyrseni), and the part of the Mediterranean Sea between the Apennine Peninsula and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica was (and is now called) the Tyrrhenian Sea, since Etruscan sailors dominated here for several centuries. The Romans called the Etruscans Tuscans (hence modern Tuscany) or Etruscans, while the Etruscans themselves called themselves Rasna or Rasenna. During the era of their greatest power, ca. 7th–5th centuries BC, the Etruscans spread their influence over a large part of the Apennine Peninsula, right up to the foot of the Alps in the north and the outskirts of Naples in the south. Rome also submitted to them. Everywhere their dominance brought with it material prosperity, large-scale engineering projects and achievements in the field of architecture. According to tradition, there was a confederation of twelve main city-states in Etruria, united in a religious and political union. These almost certainly included Caere (modern Cerveteri), Tarquinia (modern Tarquinia), Vetulonia, Veii and Volaterr (modern Volterra) - all directly on or near the coast, as well as Perusia (modern Perugia), Cortona, Volsinia (modern Orvieto) and Arretium (modern Arezzo) in the interior of the country. Other important cities include Vulci, Clusium (modern Chiusi), Falerii, Populonia, Rusella and Fiesole.
ORIGIN, HISTORY AND CULTURE
Origin.
We find the earliest mention of the Etruscans in Homeric hymns(Hymn to Dionysus, 8), which tells how this god was once captured by Tyrrhenian pirates. Hesiod in Theogony(1016) mentions “the glory of the crowned Tyrrhenians,” and Pindar (1st Pythian Ode, 72) speaks of the war cry of the Tyrrhenians. Who were these famous pirates, apparently widely known to the ancient world? Since the time of Herodotus (5th century BC), the problem of their origin has occupied the minds of historians, archaeologists and amateurs. The first theory defending the Lydian, or eastern, origin of the Etruscans goes back to Herodotus (I 94). He writes that during the reign of Atis, a severe famine broke out in Lydia, and half the population was forced to leave the country in search of food and a new place to live. They went to Smyrna, built ships there and, passing through many port cities of the Mediterranean, eventually settled among the Ombrics in Italy. There the Lydians changed their name, calling themselves Tyrrhenians in honor of their leader Tyrrhenes, the son of the king. The second theory also has its roots in antiquity. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, an Augustan rhetorician, disputes Herodotus, arguing ( Roman antiquities, I 30), that the Etruscans were not settlers, but a local and most ancient people, different from all their neighbors on the Apennine Peninsula both in language and customs. The third theory, formulated by N. Frere in the 18th century, but still has supporters, defends the northern origin of the Etruscans. According to it, the Etruscans, along with other Italic tribes, penetrated into Italian territory through the Alpine passes. Archaeological data apparently speaks in favor of the first version of the origin of the Etruscans. However, Herodotus's story should be approached with caution. Of course, the Lydian pirate aliens did not populate the Tyrrhenian coast all at once, but rather moved here in several waves. From about the middle of the 8th century. BC. the Villanova culture (whose bearers were here earlier) underwent changes under clear Eastern influence. However, the local element was strong enough to have a significant impact on the process of formation of the new people. This allows us to reconcile the messages of Herodotus and Dionysius.
Story.
Arriving in Italy, the newcomers occupied the lands north of the Tiber River along the western coast of the peninsula and founded stone-walled settlements, each of which became an independent city-state. There were not many Etruscans themselves, but their superiority in weapons and military organization allowed them to conquer the local population. Having abandoned piracy, they established profitable trade with the Phoenicians, Greeks and Egyptians and were actively involved in the production of ceramics, terracotta and metal products. Under their management, thanks to the efficient use of labor and the development of drainage systems, agriculture was significantly improved here.
From the beginning of the 7th century. BC. The Etruscans began to expand their political influence in a southern direction: the Etruscan kings ruled Rome, and their sphere of influence extended to the Greek colonies of Campania. The concerted actions of the Etruscans and Carthaginians at this time, in practice, significantly impeded Greek colonization in the western Mediterranean. However, after 500 BC. their influence began to wane; OK. 474 BC The Greeks inflicted a major defeat on them, and a little later they began to feel the pressure of the Gauls on their northern borders. At the very beginning of the 4th century. BC. wars with the Romans and a powerful Gallic invasion of the peninsula forever undermined the power of the Etruscans. Gradually they were absorbed by the expanding Roman state and disappeared into it.
Political and social institutions.
The political and religious center of the traditional confederation of twelve Etruscan cities, each ruled by a lucumo, was their common sanctuary of Fanum Voltumnae near modern Bolsena. Apparently the lucumon of each city was elected by the local aristocracy, but it is unknown who held power in the federation.
The royal powers and prerogatives were disputed from time to time by the nobility. For example, by the end of the 6th century. BC. The Etruscan monarchy in Rome was overthrown and replaced by a republic. Government structures did not undergo radical changes, except that the institution of annually elected magistrates was created. Even the title of king (lucumo) was preserved, although it had lost its former political content and was inherited by a minor official who performed priestly duties (rex sacrificulus).
The main weakness of the Etruscan alliance was, as in the case of the Greek city-states, its lack of cohesion and inability to resist with a united front both Roman expansion in the south and Gallic invasion in the north.
During the period of Etruscan political dominance in Italy, their aristocracy owned many slaves who were used as servants and in agricultural work. The economic core of the state was the middle class of artisans and traders. Family ties were strong, with each clan proud of its traditions and jealously guarding them. The Roman custom, according to which all members of the clan received a common (family) name, most likely dates back to Etruscan society. Even during the period of decline of the state, the scions of Etruscan families were proud of their pedigrees. Maecenas, friend and adviser to Augustus, could boast of descent from the Etruscan kings: his royal ancestors were Lukomons of the city of Arretium.
In Etruscan society, women led a completely independent life. Sometimes even the pedigree was traced through the female line. In contrast to Greek practice and in keeping with later Roman customs, Etruscan matrons and young girls of the aristocracy were often seen at social gatherings and public spectacles. The emancipated position of Etruscan women gave rise to Greek moralists of subsequent centuries to condemn the morals of the Tyrrhenians.
Religion.
Livy (V 1) describes the Etruscans as “a people more devoted than all others to their religious rites”; Arnobius, Christian apologist of the 4th century. AD, brands Etruria as the “mother of superstitions” ( Against the pagans, VII 26). The fact that the Etruscans were religious and superstitious is confirmed by literary evidence and monuments. The names of numerous gods, demigods, demons and heroes have been preserved, which are generally analogous to the Greek and Roman deities. Thus, the Roman triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva corresponded to the Etruscans Tin, Uni and Menva. Evidence has also been preserved (for example, in the paintings of the Orko tomb) indicating the nature of ideas about the bliss and horror of the afterlife.
In the so-called Etruscan teachings(Etrusca disciplina), several books compiled in the 2nd century. BC, the content of which we can judge only on the basis of fragmentary instructions from later writers, information and instructions were collected regarding Etruscan religious beliefs, customs and rituals. There were: 1) libri haruspicini, books about predictions; 2) libri fulgurales, books about lightning; 3) libri rituales, books about rituals. Libri haruspicini taught the art of ascertaining the will of the gods through examination of the entrails (primarily the liver) of certain animals. A soothsayer who specialized in this type of divination was called a haruspex. Libri fulgurales concerned the interpretation of lightning, its atonement and propitiation. The priest in charge of this procedure was called a fulgurator. The libri rituales discussed the norms of political and social life and the conditions of human existence, including in the afterlife. These books were in charge of a whole hierarchy of experts. Ceremonies and superstitions described in Etruscan teachings, continued to influence Roman society after the turn of our era. We find the last mention of the use of Etruscan rituals in practice in 408 AD, when the priests who came to Rome proposed to ward off danger from the city from the Goths, led by Alaric.
Economy.
When the Roman consul Scipio Africanus was preparing to invade Africa, i.e. for the campaign that was to end the 2nd Punic War, many Etruscan communities offered him their help. From the message of Livy (XXVIII 45) we learn that the city of Caere promised to provide grain and other food for the troops; Populonia undertook to supply iron, Tarquinia - canvas, Volaterr - parts of ship equipment. Arretius promised to provide 3,000 shields, 3,000 helmets and 50,000 javelins, short pikes and javelins, as well as axes, spades, sickles, baskets and 120,000 measures of wheat. Perusia, Clusius and Rucelles promised to allocate grain and ship timber. If such obligations were taken in 205 BC, when Etruria had already lost its independence, then during the years of Etruscan hegemony in Italy, its agriculture, crafts and trade should have truly flourished. In addition to the production of grain, olives, wine and timber, the rural population was engaged in cattle breeding, sheep breeding, hunting and fishing. The Etruscans also made household utensils and personal items. The development of production was facilitated by the abundant supply of iron and copper from the island of Elba. Populonia was one of the main centers of metallurgy. Etruscan products penetrated into Greece and Northern Europe.
ART AND ARCHEOLOGY
History of excavations.
The Etruscans were assimilated by the Romans during the last 3 centuries BC, but because their art was highly valued, Etruscan temples, city walls and tombs survived this period. Traces of Etruscan civilization were partially buried underground along with Roman ruins and generally did not attract attention in the Middle Ages (however, a certain influence of Etruscan painting is found in Giotto); however, during the Renaissance, they became interested again and some of them were excavated. Among those who visited Etruscan tombs were Michelangelo and Giorgio Vasari. Among the famous statues discovered in the 16th century are the famous Chimera (1553), Minerva of Arezzo (1554) and the so-called. Speaker(Arringatore) - a portrait statue of some official, found near Lake Trasimene in 1566. In the 17th century. the number of excavated objects increased, and in the 18th century. extensive study of Etruscan antiquities gave rise to enormous enthusiasm (etruscheria, i.e. “Etruscan mania”) among Italian scientists who believed that Etruscan culture was superior to ancient Greek. In the course of more or less systematic excavations, 19th century researchers. discovered thousands of the richest Etruscan tombs, filled with Etruscan metalwork and Greek vases, in Perugia, Tarquinia, Vulci, Cerveteri (1836, tomb of Regolini-Galassi), Veii, Chiusi, Bologna, Vetulonia and many other places. In the 20th century Particularly significant were the discoveries of temple sculptures in Veii (1916 and 1938) and a rich burial in Comacchio (1922) on the Adriatic coast. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of Etruscan antiquities, especially through the efforts of the Institute of Etruscan and Italian Studies in Florence and its scientific periodical Studi Etruschi, published since 1927.
Geographical distribution of monuments.
The archaeological map of the monuments left by the Etruscans reflects their history. The oldest settlements, dating from around 700 BC, are found in the coastal area between Rome and the island of Elba: Veii, Cerveteri, Tarquinia, Vulci, Statonia, Vetulonia and Populonia. From the end of the 7th century and throughout the 6th century. BC. Etruscan culture spread to the mainland from Pisa in the north and along the Apennines. In addition to Umbria, the Etruscan possessions included cities that now bear the names of Fiesole, Arezzo, Cortona, Chiusi and Perugia. Their culture penetrated south, to the modern cities of Orvieto, Falerii and Rome, and finally beyond Naples and into the Campania. Objects of Etruscan culture have been discovered in Velletri, Praeneste, Conca, Capua and Pompeii. Bologna, Marzabotto and Spina became centers of Etruscan colonization of the areas beyond the Apennine mountain range. Later, in 393 BC, the Gauls invaded these lands. Through trade, Etruscan influence spread to other areas of Italy.
With the weakening of the power of the Etruscans under the blows of the Gauls and Romans, the area of distribution of their material culture also shrank. However, in some cities of Tuscany, cultural traditions and language survived into the 1st century. BC. In Clusia, art belonging to the Etruscan tradition was produced until about 100 BC; in Volaterra - until about 80 BC, and in Perusia - until about 40 BC. Some Etruscan inscriptions date from a time after the disappearance of the Etruscan states and may date back to the Augustan era.
Tombs.
The oldest traces of the Etruscans can be traced through their burials, often located on separate hills and, for example, in Caere and Tarquinia, which were real cities of the dead. The simplest type of tomb, which spread from about 700 BC, is a recess carved into the rock. For kings and their relatives, such graves were apparently made larger. Such are the tombs of Bernardini and Barberini at Praeneste (c. 650 BC), with numerous decorations in gold and silver, bronze tripods and cauldrons, as well as glass and ivory objects brought from Phenicia. Since the 7th century. BC. A typical technique was to connect several chambers together so that entire underground dwellings of different sizes were obtained. They had doors, sometimes windows, and often stone benches on which the dead were laid. In some cities (Caere, Tarquinia, Vetulonia, Populonia and Clusium), such tombs were covered with embankments up to 45 m in diameter, built on top of natural hills. In other places (for example, in San Giuliano and Norcia), crypts were carved into steep rock cliffs, giving them the appearance of houses and temples with flat or sloping roofs.
The architectural form of the tombs, built of cut stone, is interesting. A long corridor was built for the ruler of the city of Cere, above which huge stone blocks formed a false pointed vault. The design and construction technique of this tomb is reminiscent of the tombs in Ugarit (Syria) dating back to the era of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture and the so-called. tomb of Tantalus in Asia Minor. Some Etruscan tombs have a false dome over a rectangular chamber (Pietrera in Vetulonia and Poggio delle Granate in Populonia) or over a circular room (the tomb from Casale Marittimo, reconstructed in the Archaeological Museum of Florence). Both types of tombs date back to the architectural tradition of the 2nd millennium BC. and resemble the tombs of a previous time in Cyprus and Crete.
The so-called “Grotto of Pythagoras” at Cortona, which is actually an Etruscan tomb from the 5th century. BC, testifies to the understanding of the laws of interaction of multidirectional forces, necessary for the construction of genuine arches and vaults. Such structures appear in late tombs (3rd–1st centuries BC) - for example, in the so-called. the tomb of the Grand Duke in Chiusi and the tomb of San Manno near Perugia. The territory of Etruscan cemeteries is crossed by regularly oriented passages, on which deep ruts left by funeral carts have been preserved. The paintings and reliefs reproduce the public mourning and solemn processions that accompanied the deceased to his eternal abode, where he will be among the furnishings, personal effects, bowls and jugs left for him to eat and drink. The platforms erected above the tomb were intended for funeral feasts, including dances and games, and for the kind of gladiatorial combats represented in the paintings of the tomb of the Augurs at Tarquinia. It is the contents of the tombs that give us most of the information about the life and art of the Etruscans.
Cities.
The Etruscans can be considered the people who brought urban civilization to central and northern Italy, but little is known about their cities. Intense human activity in these areas, which lasted for many centuries, destroyed or hid from view many Etruscan monuments. Nevertheless, quite a few mountain towns in Tuscany are still surrounded by walls built by the Etruscans (Orvieto, Cortona, Chiusi, Fiesole, Perugia and, probably, Cerveteri). In addition, impressive city walls can be seen at Veii, Falerii, Saturnia and Tarquinia, and later city gates dating from the 3rd and 2nd centuries. BC, - in Falerie and Perugia. Aerial photography is increasingly being used to locate Etruscan settlements and burial grounds. In the mid-1990s, systematic excavations began at a number of Etruscan cities, including Cerveteri and Tarquinia, as well as a number of cities in Tuscany.
Etruscan mountain cities do not have a regular layout, as evidenced by sections of two streets in Vetulonia. The dominant element in the appearance of the city was the temple or temples, built on the most elevated places, as in Orvieto and Tarquinia. As a rule, the city had three gates dedicated to the intercessor gods: one to Tina (Jupiter), another to Uni (Juno), and the third to Menrva (Minerva). Extremely regular buildings with rectangular blocks were found only in Marzabotto (near modern Bologna), an Etruscan colony on the Reno River. Its streets were paved and water was drained through terracotta pipes.
Dwellings.
In Veii and Vetulonia, simple dwellings such as log cabins with two rooms, as well as houses with an irregular layout with several rooms, were found. The noble Lucumoni who ruled Etruscan cities probably had more extensive urban and country residences. They are apparently reproduced by stone urns in the shape of houses and late Etruscan tombs. The urn, kept in the Florence Museum, depicts a palace-like two-story stone structure with an arched entrance, wide windows on the ground floor and galleries along the second floor. The Roman type of house with an atrium probably goes back to Etruscan prototypes.
Temples.
The Etruscans built their temples from wood and mud brick with terracotta cladding. The temple of the simplest type, very similar to the early Greek one, had a square room for a cult statue and a portico supported by two columns. An elaborate temple described by the Roman architect Vitruvius ( About architecture IV 8, 1), was divided inside into three rooms (cells) for the three main gods - Tin, Uni and Menrva. The portico was the same depth as the interior, and had two rows of columns - four in each row. Since observation of the sky played an important role in the Etruscan religion, temples were built on high platforms. Temples with three cellae are reminiscent of the pre-Greek sanctuaries of Lemnos and Crete. As we now know, they placed large terracotta statues on the roof ridge (as, for example, in Veii). In other words, Etruscan temples are a variety of Greek ones. The Etruscans also created a developed road network, bridges, sewers and irrigation canals.
Sculpture.
Early in their history, the Etruscans imported Syrian, Phoenician and Assyrian ivory and metalwork and imitated them in their own production. However, very soon they began to imitate everything Greek. Although their art reflects mainly Greek styles, it has a healthy energy and earthy spirit that is not characteristic of the Greek prototype, which is more reserved and intellectual in character. The best Etruscan sculptures, perhaps, should be considered those made of metal, mainly bronze. Most of these statues were captured by the Romans: according to Pliny the Elder ( Natural history XXXIV 34), in Volsinia alone, taken in 256 BC, they received 2000 pieces. Few have survived to this day. Among the most remarkable are a female bust forged from metal sheet from Vulci (c. 600 BC, British Museum), a chariot richly decorated with relief mythological scenes from Monteleone (c. 540 BC, Metropolitan Museum); Chimera from Arezzo (c. 500 BC, Archaeological Museum in Florence); statue of a boy from the same time (in Copenhagen); god of war (c. 450 BC, in Kansas City); statue of a warrior from Tudera (c. 350 BC, now in the Vatican); expressive head of a priest (c. 180 BC, British Museum); head of a boy (c. 280 BC, Archaeological Museum in Florence). Symbol of Rome, famous Capitoline wolf(approximately dated after 500 BC, now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori in Rome), known already in the Middle Ages, probably also made by the Etruscans.
A remarkable achievement of world art were the terracotta statues and reliefs of the Etruscans. The best of them are the archaic era statues found near the temple of Apollo in Veii, among which there are images of gods and goddesses watching the struggle of Apollo and Hercules over a killed deer (c. 500 BC). A relief depiction of a lively fight (probably from the pediment) was discovered in 1957–1958 in Pyrgi, the port of Cerveteri. In style it echoes the Greek compositions of the early classical era (480–470 BC). A magnificent team of winged horses was found near a 4th century temple. BC. in Tarquinia. Interesting from a historical point of view are the living scenes from the pediments of the temple in Civita Alba, which depict the sack of Delphi by the Gauls.
Stone Etruscan sculpture reveals more local originality than metal sculpture. The first experiments in creating sculptures from stone are represented by pillar-shaped figures of men and women from the tomb of Pietrera in Vetulonia. They imitate Greek statues of the mid-7th century. BC. The archaic tombs at Vulci and Chiusi are decorated with the figure of a centaur and various stone busts. Images of battles, festivals, games, funerals and scenes of women's life were found on tombstones of the 6th century. BC. from Chiusi and Fiesole. There are also scenes from Greek mythology, such as relief images on stone slabs installed above the entrance to the tombs at Tarquinia. From 4th century BC sarcophagi and urns containing ashes were usually decorated with reliefs on themes of Greek legends and scenes of the afterlife. On the lids of many of them are figures of reclining men and women, whose faces are particularly expressive.
Painting.
Etruscan painting is especially valuable, since it makes it possible to judge Greek paintings and frescoes that have not reached us. With the exception of a few fragments of the picturesque decoration of the temples (Cerveteri and Faleria), Etruscan frescoes were preserved only in the tombs - in Cerveteri, Veii, Orvieto and Tarquinia. In the oldest (c. 600 BC) tomb of the Lions at Cerveteri there is an image of a deity between two lions; in the tomb of Campana in Veii, the deceased is represented riding out on horseback to hunt. From the middle of the 6th century. BC. Scenes of dancing, libations, as well as athletic and gladiatorial competitions (Tarquinia) predominate, although there are also images of hunting and fishing (the tomb of Hunting and Fishing in Tarquinia). The best monuments of Etruscan painting are dance scenes from the tomb of Francesca Giustiniani and the tomb of Triclinius. The drawing here is very confident, the color scheme is not rich (yellow, red, brown, green and blue) and discreet, but harmonious. The frescoes of these two tombs imitate the work of Greek masters of the 5th century. BC. Among the few painted tombs of the late period, the large tomb of François in Vulci (4th century BC) is rightfully distinguished. One of the scenes discovered here - the attack of the Roman Gnaeus Tarquin on the Etruscan Caelius Vibenna, assisted by his brother Aelius and another Etruscan Mastarna - is probably an Etruscan interpretation of a Roman legend on the same topic; other scenes are borrowed from Homer. The Etruscan underworld, with an admixture of individual Greek elements, is represented in the tomb of Orcus, the tomb of Typhon and the tomb of the Cardinal at Tarquinia, where various fearsome demons are depicted (Haru, Tukhulka). These Etruscan demons were apparently known to the Roman poet Virgil.
Ceramics.
Etruscan ceramics are technologically good, but are mostly imitative in nature. Black vases of the bucchero type imitate bronze vessels (7th–5th centuries BC) with greater or lesser success; they are often decorated with relief figures, usually reproducing Greek designs. The evolution of painted pottery follows, with some lag in time, the development of Greek vases. The most original are vases depicting objects of non-Greek origin, for example, the ships of Tyrrhenian pirates or following the style of folk art. In other words, the value of Etruscan ceramics lies in the fact that through it we trace the growth of Greek influence, especially in the field of mythology. The Etruscans themselves preferred Greek vases, which were discovered in the thousands in Etruscan tombs (about 80% of the currently known Greek vases come from Etruria and southern Italy. Thus, the Francois vase (in the Archaeological Museum of Florence), a magnificent creation of the master of the Attic black-figure style Clytius (first half of 6 c. BC), was found in an Etruscan tomb near Chiusi.
Metalworking.
According to Greek authors, Etruscan bronzes were highly valued in Greece. An ancient bowl with human faces discovered in the necropolis of Athens, approximately dating back to the beginning of the 7th century, is probably of Etruscan origin. BC. Part of an Etruscan tripod found on the Acropolis of Athens. At the end of the 7th, in the 6th and 5th centuries. BC. a large number of Etruscan cauldrons, buckets and jugs for wine were exported to Central Europe, some of them even reached Scandinavia. Bronze Etruscan figurine found in England.
In Tuscany, reliable, large and very impressive stands, tripods, cauldrons, lamps and even thrones were made from bronze. These objects also formed part of the furnishings of the tombs, many of which were decorated with relief or three-dimensional images of people and animals. Bronze chariots with scenes of heroic battles or figures of legendary heroes were also made here. The engraved design was widely used to decorate bronze toilet boxes and bronze mirrors, many of which were made in the Latin city of Praeneste. Both scenes from Greek myths and major and minor Etruscan gods were used as motifs. The most famous of the engraved vessels is the Ficoroni cyst in Rome's Villa Giulia Museum, which depicts the exploits of the Argonauts.
Jewelry.
The Etruscans also excelled in jewelry. A remarkable array of bracelets, plates, necklaces and brooches adorned the woman buried in the Regolini-Galassi tomb at Caere: she appears to have been literally covered in gold. The technique of granulation, when tiny balls of gold were soldered onto a hot surface to depict the figures of gods and animals, was nowhere used as skillfully as in decorating the bows of some Etruscan brooches. Later, the Etruscans made earrings of various shapes with amazing ingenuity and care.
Coins.
The Etruscans mastered coinage in the 5th century. BC. Gold, silver and bronze were used for this. The coins, designed according to Greek designs, depicted seahorses, gorgons, wheels, vases, double axes and profiles of various patron gods of cities. Inscriptions were also made on them with the names of Etruscan cities: Velzna (Volsinia), Vetluna (Vetulonia), Hamars (Chiusi), Pupluna (Populonia). The last Etruscan coins were minted in the 2nd century. BC.
The contribution of archaeology.
Archaeological discoveries made in Etruria since the mid-16th century. to this day, they have recreated a vivid picture of Etruscan civilization. This picture was significantly enriched by the use of such new methods as photographing unexcavated tombs (a method invented by C. Lerici) using a special periscope. Archaeological finds reflect not only the power and wealth of the early Etruscans based on piracy and barter, but also their gradual decline, due, according to ancient authors, to the enervating influence of luxury. These finds illustrate Etruscan warfare, their beliefs, their pastimes and, to a lesser extent, their work activities. Vases, reliefs, sculpture, paintings and works of art of small forms show a surprisingly complete assimilation of Greek customs and beliefs, as well as striking evidence of the influence of the pre-Greek era.
Archeology also confirmed the literary tradition that spoke of Etruscan influence on Rome. The terracotta decoration of early Roman temples was made in the Etruscan style; Many vases and bronze objects from the early Republican period of Roman history are made by or in the manner of the Etruscans. The double ax as a symbol of power, according to the Romans, was of Etruscan origin; double axes are also represented in Etruscan funerary sculpture - for example, on the stele of Aulus Velusca, located in Florence. Moreover, such double hatchets were placed in the tombs of leaders, as was the case in Populonia. At least until the 4th century. BC. the material culture of Rome was entirely dependent on the culture of the Etruscans
Does Etruria have its own history? A dozen cities allied with each other, the development of which did not occur simultaneously, and which had completely different, and sometimes opposite, destinies - could they have a common and unified history? Without a doubt, it would be more correct to talk about the history of the Etruscan civilization, about the history of people who used the same language and who were united by a common religion.
In fact, these cities, at once so different and so similar, were united by the consciousness of their belonging to the same nation and celebrated this unity every year by electing a god in the temple Voltumny, located on the territory of Volsinia, the head of the union - rex Etruriae, a symbol of their cultural and religious ties. The Romans, however, viewed this somewhat differently and spoke about Etruscan dominance in Italy, without highlighting the dominance of one or another city.
The question of the origin of the Etruscans is not central today.
Since ancient times, three versions have been put forward regarding the origin of the Etruscans: the version of eastern origin, the version of their arrival from the northern Alpine countries and the version of their local origin.
After opening in Villanova(a village located near Bologna) In the middle of the 19th century, the tombs, which were considered by archaeologists to belong to the culture immediately preceding the Etruscan, began to be called the entire period stretching from the beginning of the formation of Etruria to the end of the 8th century BC Villanovian. This term thus refers to the entire early history of the Etruscans.
The burials found at Villanova are associated with the earliest Italian practice of cremation of the dead, a custom also known in central Europe as cultures of the fields of burial urns, did not exist on the Apennine Peninsula during the Bronze Age. The burials of this "Apennine culture" are found throughout all regions where Italic languages of Indo-European origin were spoken, concurrent with the so-called "pit burial" culture (where the dead were buried in pit graves in an extended position along with the objects of their daily life).
It is therefore tempting to identify the emergence of Etruscan civilization with the rite of cremation in Tuscany. However, this in no way resolves the issue of the origin of the Etruscans.
There are two important dates to remember related to the formation of the Etruscan civilization: 1200 BC. and 900 BC The first date corresponds to the emergence of this new culture and perhaps the arrival of groups of people emerging from the East, although nothing can prove this. Late 13th century BC was marked by serious upheavals, especially in the eastern Mediterranean: the fall of the Hittite Empire, acts of piracy and attempts to conquer, especially in Egypt, the “peoples of the sea”
If there were once migratory movements of people who came from the East to join the population of Tuscany in order to change the culture and introduce the foundations of a new civilization, then they should be dated to the beginning of the 12th century.
Second date, 900 BC. (beginning of the Iron Age, after the gradual expansion of the practice of cremation throughout what would later be Etruscan territory), marks the beginning of pre-urbanization, which marks a new growth and apogee of Villanovian culture.
As for cities, during this period there is a regrouping of scattered habitat areas into places that in the future will become large cities - Veii, Caere, Volsinia, Vulci.
Let's take an example Tarquin, sacred city of Etruria. Excavations of numerous necropolises located on all its hills have revealed several habitat zones scattered at the heights, in particular on the Monterozzi plateau.
Around 750-720. BC. all these habitats were abandoned in favor of a single site where the city of Tarquinia was created, while Monterozzi became the necropolis of the new city. Here, as in Rome, the choice of a single place of residence was determined by the place intended for the burial of the dead. Archaeologist Mario Torelli compares these two famous cities and notes the commonality in the process of regrouping of the surrounding inhabitants and in the process of their founding.
A similar pattern in the formation of cities was observed throughout almost all of Etruria, with some differences in different eras and regions.
Etruscans in Italy
A study of the influences and confrontations on the Apennine Peninsula before the advent of Rome allows us to note the enormous role that the Etruscans played not only in Italy, but throughout the Western Mediterranean. It is obvious that they occupied a dominant position there, unlike the Greeks and Carthaginians. Relations between these three peoples were constantly becoming more complicated.
It can be said, therefore, that the Etruscans played a major role in the formation of Italy.
Italy began to transform itself under the Greek model. Contacts, especially commercial ones, of the cities of Magna Graecia with Campania, Latium and Etruria favored the evolution of these regions and contributed to their development. However, it should be noted that there were no Greek colonies on Etruscan soil. At the same time, Etruria, fertile and rich in metals, had everything to attract the Greeks. But the Etruscan cities, which had already been formed by this time, themselves showed colonialist inclinations. They competed with the Greeks on the soil of Italy.
7th century BC this is the time when Carthage also decided to establish itself in the Western Mediterranean. In the 6th century BC, the Greek presence intensified even more: the Greek colony-polises set out to block the Etruscans’ road to Sicily.
The appearance of Greek colonists in southern Italy greatly influenced the customs of the Etruscans. This period was marked by the highest degree of sophistication of Etruscan civilization and the prosperity of such large cities. Rome's position became even more strategic, and Etruscan cities began to quarrel over the possession of this point.
But the brilliance and sophistication of Etruscan culture of this period hid the reality of the decline that was already evident in the life of Etruria. In 545 BC. A victory was won over the Phocians at Alalia, but it put the Etruscans in an even more difficult position. The Carthaginians, who allied with the Etruscans in the fight against it, gave Alalia to their Etruscan allies, and themselves gained control of a much larger part of the island. At the same time they settled in Western Sicily and began
there is a war against the Greeks. At the same time, the Carthaginians constantly relied on their Etruscan allies, with whom they concluded a treaty of friendship. However, this notorious treaty seems to have imposed on the Etruscans something like a Carthaginian protectorate.
To these foreign policy problems should be added the internal upheavals in the Greek colonies, which began at the end of the 6th century BC, which could not but affect the Etruscans.
Tarquinius proudly ruled Rome like a tyrant, arousing the hatred of the Romans. Ultimately, Rome rebelled and the tyrant and his family were expelled. It is believed that Tarquin was expelled from Rome in 509 BC.
However, the struggle did not end with the expulsion of Tarquinius. Tarquin ran to Porsenne, king of the Etruscan city of Chiusi. Porsenna, considering the restoration of Tarquin's power useful for the Etruscans, went to Rome. According to some versions, he captured the city.
After this, a detachment of Etruscans led by the son of Porsenna Arunta moved against the Latins, but was defeated by the Greek army under the command Aristodemus.
After some time, in 474 BC, a new tyrant Hieron, having united the Greek coalition, defeated the Etruscans, allies of the already thoroughly weakened Carthaginians, near Cumae. The Etruscans, then they were forced to retreat beyond their original borders, and it is from this defeat that we must count the time when they finally left Rome.
Etruscans in Rome
It is believed that the Etruscans came up with a legend that could justify their presence at the head of Rome from the moment of its founding. We know that the “official” legend of Romulus appeared gradually and was formalized only in the 4th century BC... According to legend, the Etruscan king Taphetius was the grandfather of the founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus.
Tarhetius reigned in Alba Lonre and was obviously considered a descendant of Aeneas, that is, ultimately, Zeus himself. A magical phallus suddenly appeared in the hearth of his house, which allegedly produced the Roman twins suckled by a she-wolf.
The presence of Tuscan traders in Rome long before the reign of Tarquin is beyond doubt, but Etruscan rule would change the city so profoundly in so many areas that it would take too long to compile a comprehensive list.
The Etruscan influence was most clearly manifested in the field of landscaping. The skill of hydraulic engineers made it possible to drain the swampy land of the Forum, create the first drainage and, in fact, a new urban landscape. The Capitol was equipped and the Temple of Jupiter was built on the model of Etruscan temples, stone buildings covered with tiles were erected. They were decorated with painted terracotta products, the remains of which were found in all important places of the center (Forum, Capitol), the Great Circus (Circus Maximus) was equipped, several streets were laid on the territory of the Forum, including the famous Vicus Tuscus(Tuscan street) with a statue of God Vertumnus.
The Etruscan kings were not content with changing the cityscape. They also introduced some ceremonies (triumphs, games), established a calendar and, mainly thanks to Servius Tullius, carried out important reforms, creating new social and military structures. All citizens of Rome were divided into classes according to their condition, and these classes became represented in the army by different detachments with different levels of weapons.
To these basic changes can be added a number of innovations of a legal and cultural nature, which for a long time took root in the morals and customs of the Romans, to such an extent that they themselves began to forget about their origin. The most important:
One of these innovations was, without a doubt, the alphabet, which the Etruscans themselves borrowed from the Greeks.
All this means that, despite the desire of the Romans themselves to downplay Etruscan influence, the presence of the Etruscans in Rome was real and left a very deep mark.
(1494-1559)
Argumentation of the migration version
The second theory is supported by the works of Herodotus, which appeared in the 5th century BC. e. As Herodotus argued, the Etruscans were natives of Lydia, a region in Asia Minor, the Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians, who were forced to leave their homeland due to catastrophic crop failure and famine. According to Herodotus, this happened almost simultaneously with the Trojan War. Hellanicus from the island of Lesbos mentioned the legend of the Pelasgians, who arrived in Italy and became known as the Tyrrhenians. At that time, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed and the Hittite Empire fell, that is, the appearance of the Tyrrhenians should be dated to the 13th century BC. e. or a little later. Perhaps connected with this legend is the myth about the flight to the west of the Trojan hero Aeneas and the founding of the Roman state, which was of great importance for the Etruscans. Herodotus's hypothesis is supported by genetic analysis data, which confirm the kinship of the Etruscans with the inhabitants of the lands currently belonging to Turkey.
Until the middle of the 20th century. The “Lydian version” was subject to serious criticism, especially after the decipherment of the Lydian inscriptions - their language had nothing in common with Etruscan. However, there is also a version that the Etruscans should not be identified with the Lydians, but with the more ancient, pre-Indo-European population of the west of Asia Minor, known as the “Proto-Luvians”. A. Erman identified the legendary Tursha tribe, which lived in the eastern Mediterranean and carried out predatory raids on Egypt (XIII-VII centuries BC), with the Etruscans of this early period.
Argumentation of the complex version
Based on the material of ancient sources and archaeological data, we can conclude that the most ancient elements of prehistoric Mediterranean unity took part in the ethnogenesis of the Etruscans during the period of the beginning of the movement from East to West in the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e.; also a wave of settlers from the area of the Black and Caspian Seas in the 2nd millennium BC. e. In the process of forming the Etruscan community, traces of Aegean and Aegean-Anatolian emigrants were found. This is confirmed by the results of excavations on the island. Lemnos (Aegean Sea), where inscriptions similar to the grammatical structure of the Etruscan language were found.
Geographical position
It is not yet possible to determine the exact limits of Etruria. The history and culture of the Etruscans began in the Tyrrhenian Sea region and is limited to the basin of the Tiber and Arno rivers. The country's river network also included the rivers Aventia, Vesidia, Tsetsina, Alusa, Umbro, Oza, Albinia, Armenta, Marta, Minio, and Aro. A wide river network created conditions for developed agriculture, in some places complicated by wetlands. Southern Etruria, whose soils were often of volcanic origin, had extensive lakes: Tsiminskoe, Alsietiskoe, Statonenskoe, Volsinskoe, Sabatinskoe, Trasimenskoe. More than half of the country's territory was occupied by mountains and hills. The diversity of flora and fauna of the region can be judged from the paintings and reliefs. The Etruscans cultivated cypress, myrtle, and pomegranate trees, brought to Italy from Carthage (an image of a pomegranate is found on Etruscan objects in the 6th century BC).
Cities and necropolises
Each of the Etruscan cities influenced the territory it controlled. The exact number of inhabitants of the Etruscan city-states is unknown; according to rough estimates, the population of Cerveteri in its heyday was 25 thousand people.
Cerveteri was the southernmost city of Etruria; it controlled deposits of metal-bearing ore, which ensured the well-being of the city. The settlement was located near the coast on a steep ledge. The necropolis was traditionally located outside the city. A road led to it along which funeral carts were transported. There were tombs on both sides of the road. The bodies rested on benches, in niches or terracotta sarcophagi. The personal belongings of the deceased were placed with them.
From the name of this city (etr. - Caere) the Roman word “ceremony” was subsequently derived - this is how the Romans called some funeral rites.
The neighboring city of Veii had excellent defenses. The city and its acropolis were surrounded by ditches, making Veii almost impregnable. An altar, a temple foundation and water tanks were discovered here. Vulka is the only Etruscan sculptor whose name we know was a native of Vei. The area around the city is notable for the passages carved into the rock, which served to drain water.
The recognized center of Etruria was the city of Tarquinia. The name of the city comes from the son or brother of Tyrrhenus Tarkon, who founded twelve Etruscan policies. The necropolises of Tarquinia were concentrated near the hills of Colle de Civita and Monterozzi. The tombs, carved into the rock, were protected by mounds, the chambers were painted for two hundred years. It was here that magnificent sarcophagi were discovered, decorated with bas-reliefs with images of the deceased on the lid.
When laying the city, the Etruscans observed rituals similar to the Roman ones. An ideal place was chosen, a hole was dug into which the sacrifices were thrown. From this place, the founder of the city, using a plow drawn by a cow and an ox, drew a furrow that determined the position of the city walls. Where possible, the Etruscans used a lattice street layout, oriented to the cardinal points.
Story
The formation, development and collapse of the Etruscan state took place against the backdrop of three periods of Ancient Greece - Orientalizing or Geometric, Classical (Hellenistic), and the rise of Rome. The earlier stages are given in accordance with the autochthonic theory of the origin of the Etruscans.
Proto-Villanovian period
The most important of the historical sources that marked the beginning of Etruscan civilization is the Etruscan chronology of saecula (centuries). According to him, the first century of the ancient state, saeculum, began around the 11th or 10th century BC. e. This time belongs to the so-called Proto-Villanovian period (XII-X centuries BC). There is extremely little data on the Proto-Villanovians. The only important evidence of the beginning of a new civilization is a change in the funeral rite, which began to be performed by cremating the body on a funeral pyre, followed by burying the ashes in urns.
Villanova I and Villanova II periods
After the loss of independence, Etruria retained its cultural identity for some time. In the II-I centuries BC. e. local art continued to exist; this period is also called Etruscan-Roman. But gradually the Etruscans adopted the way of life of the Romans. In 89 BC. e. the inhabitants of Etruria received Roman citizenship. By this time, the process of Romanization of Etruscan cities was almost completed, along with Etruscan history itself.
Arts and culture
The first monuments of Etruscan culture date back to the end of the 9th - beginning of the 8th centuries. BC e. The development cycle of Etruscan civilization ends in the 2nd century. BC e. Rome was under its influence until the 1st century. BC e.
The Etruscans long preserved the archaic cults of the first Italian settlers and showed a special interest in death and the afterlife. Therefore, Etruscan art was significantly associated with the decoration of tombs, based on the concept that the objects in them should maintain a connection with real life. The most notable surviving monuments are sculpture and sarcophagi.
Etruscan language and literature
A special category were women's toiletries. One of the most famous products of Etruscan craftsmen were bronze hand mirrors. Some are equipped with folding drawers and decorated with high reliefs. One surface was carefully polished, the reverse was decorated with engraving or high relief. Strigils were made from bronze - spatulas for removing oil and dirt, cysts, nail files, and caskets.
The Etruscans all wore short hair, with the exception of the haruspex priests [ ] . The priests did not cut their hair, but removed it from their foreheads with a narrow headband, a gold or silver hoop [ ] . In an earlier period, the Etruscans cut their beards short, but later they began to shave them clean [ ] . Women let their hair down over their shoulders or braided it and covered their head with a cap.
Leisure
The Etruscans loved to participate in fighting competitions and, perhaps, to help other people with housework [ ] . Also, the Etruscans had a theater, but it did not become as widespread as, for example, the Attic theater, and the manuscripts of plays found are not enough for a final analysis.
Economy
Crafts and agriculture
The basis of Etruria's prosperity was agriculture, which made it possible to keep livestock and export surplus wheat to the largest cities in Italy. Spelled, oat and barley grains were found in the archaeological material. The high level of Etruscan agriculture made it possible to engage in selection - an Etruscan spelled variety was obtained, and for the first time they began to cultivate cultivated oats. Flax was used to sew tunics and raincoats, and ship sails. This material was used to record various texts (this achievement was later adopted by the Romans). There is evidence from antiquities about the strength of linen thread, from which Etruscan artisans made armor (6th century BC tomb, Tarquinia). The Etruscans quite widely used artificial irrigation, drainage, and regulation of river flows. The ancient canals known to archaeological science were located near the Etruscan cities of Spina, Veii, in the Coda region.
In the depths of the Apennines lay copper, zinc, silver, iron, and on the island of Ilva (Elba) iron ore reserves - everything was developed by the Etruscans. The presence of numerous metal products in the tombs of the 8th century. BC e. in Etruria it is associated with an adequate level of mining and metallurgy. Remains of mining are widely found in ancient Populonia (Campiglia Marritima region). The analysis allows us to establish that the smelting of copper and bronze preceded iron processing. There are finds made of copper inlaid with miniature iron squares - a technique used when working with expensive materials. In the 7th century BC e. iron was still a rare metal for processing. Nevertheless, metalworking in cities and colonial centers has been identified: the production of metal utensils was developed in Capua and Nola, and an assortment of blacksmith items was found in Minturni, Venafre, and Suessa. Metalworking workshops are noted in Marzabotto. For that time, the mining and processing of copper and iron was significant in scale. In this area, the Etruscans succeeded in constructing mines for manual extraction of ore.
By modern standards, Etruscan houses are rather sparsely furnished. As a rule, the Etruscans did not use shelves and cabinets; things and provisions were stored in caskets, baskets or hung on hooks.
Luxury goods and jewelry
For centuries, Etruscan aristocrats wore jewelry and acquired luxury items made of glass, earthenware, amber, ivory, precious stones, gold and silver. Villanovians in the 7th century BC e. wore glass beads, precious metal jewelry, and faience pendants from the Eastern Mediterranean. The most important local products were brooches, made of bronze, gold, silver and iron. The latter were considered rare.
The exceptional prosperity of Etruria in the 7th century BC. e. caused a rapid development of jewelry and an influx of imported products. Silver bowls were imported from Phenicia, and the images on them were copied by Etruscan craftsmen. Boxes and cups were made from ivory imported from the East. Most jewelry was produced in Etruria. Goldsmiths used engraving, filigree and graining. In addition to brooches, pins, buckles, hair ribbons, earrings, rings, necklaces, bracelets, and clothing plates were widespread.
During the Archaic era, decorations became more elaborate. Earrings in the form of tiny bags and disc-shaped earrings have come into fashion. Semi-precious stones and colored glass were used. During this period, beautiful gems appeared. Hollow pendants or bullas often played the role of amulets and were worn by children and adults. Etruscan women of the Hellenistic period preferred Greek-type jewelry. In the 2nd century BC. e. They wore a tiara on their heads, small earrings with pendants in their ears, disc-shaped clasps on their shoulders, and their hands were decorated with bracelets and rings.
Etruscans(ital. etruschi, lat. tusci, other Greek τυρσηνοί, τυρρηνοί-Tyrrhenians, self-called. Rasenna, Rasna or Raśna ) - ancient Aryan tribes of the Hittite-Proto-Slavic tree, inhabiting in the first millennium BC. e. north-west of the Apennine Peninsula (region - ancient Etruria, modern Tuscany) and created an advanced civilization that preceded and shaped the Roman one. Often what is attributed to the Romans are the remains of the Etruscans. The Roman triumphal arch is nothing more than the Etruscan city arch. The Capitoline wolf was created in Etruria.
Who and where were the Slavs before they began to be called that? Archaeological discoveries of the last century in the Apennine Peninsula and the Balkans became revolutionary for the historiography of Europe: they led to the emergence of a new field of historiography - etruscology, affecting not only ancient and early Roman times. The information obtained provided comprehensive material that made it possible to fully identify the Etruscan culture, including language, religion, traditions, rituals, and way of life. These signs of culture made it possible to trace the history of the development of the Etruscan-Roman civilization up to our time. They shed light on many of the "blank spots" of history and the "dark times" of historical literature. They provided answers to fundamental questions regarding the prehistory of the Slavs. The general conclusion is that the Etruscans are Proto-Slavs: a large number of material data demonstrate the identity of the cultures of the Etruscans and the ancient Slavs, and there is not a single fact contradicting this. All the fundamental features of the cultures of the Etruscans and the ancient Slavs coincide. In addition, all the fundamental characteristics that unite the Etruscan and Slavic cultures are unique and different from other cultures. There is no other nation that possesses at least one of these characteristics. In other words, the Etruscan culture is not similar to anyone other than the Slavs, and vice versa, the Slavs are not similar to anyone in the past except the Etruscans, i.e. The Etruscans have no other descendants except the Slavs. This is the main reason why they are persistently trying to “bury” the Etruscans.
Reliable data show that the homeland of the peoples now called Slavs is the south of Europe. There are two fundamental, reliably confirmed facts of the history of Byzantium: firstly, the population of the European part of Byzantium from the 5th century gradually began to be called Slavs; on the other hand, before the formation of the Slavic principalities, the territories of the Roman and Byzantine empires: from the Black Sea to the Alps and the Apennines, the Adriatic coast are the only reliably established territories of the constant presence of the culture of the ancient Slavs. The name "Slavs" was neither the original name of the people nor their self-name. This name, going back to the word “glorious,” developed in the Middle Ages as a general name for part of the Byzantine and former Byzantine population who staunchly professed the pagan monotheism of the god Perun, and in whose names the ending “slav” was common (Miroslav, Rostislav, etc. ). We are talking about a developed settled people with a state social culture, a people whose language structure, pre-Christian religion and traditions date back to the ancient times of Rome. How did this people arise with such a high state culture - a culture that has been developed over many centuries, is not easy to develop and was not achieved by all peoples of the past? Where are the sources of such a high level of development of the Slavic principalities in the 10th-12th centuries? What is the prehistory of the Slavs, or, in other words, the pre-Slavic history of the people named by this name (the term “Slavs” appeared only in the 10th century AD). Who really and where were the ancestors of the Slavs? What are myths, hypotheses, and what is reality?
Unfortunately, the historiography of the Slavs cannot rely on reliable written sources. The problem of non-survivability and unreliability of surviving historical written sources is common, but in the case of the prehistory of the Slavs, it is critical - the prehistory of the Slavs cannot be reliably reconstructed on the basis of information alone from the few surviving and repeatedly rewritten monuments of historical literature that managed to survive. The surviving literature of the Middle Ages about the Slavs is scanty and reflects only the confrontation between nascent Christianity and the monotheistic paganism of the god Perun, which was preached by the ancient Slavs (the commitment of the Byzantine emperors to Christ-Radimir and Perun also fluctuated, some of the emperors were pagans, some were Christians).
But the lack of truthful written information is not the end of historiography. After all, a people is not identified by what the author or a later copyist of a monument of historical literature said about those who are now commonly called the ancient Slavs. There are objective characteristics of a people and criteria for their identification.
A people is identified by its culture (all its parts), that is, by what has been developed over many centuries. The three fundamental features of culture, which are self-sufficient for identifying a people, are: language, its structure, pre-Christian religion, traditions, rites and customs. In other words, if these fundamental signs of culture coincide among two peoples of the present and past, then they are the same people at different times. Culture is incomparably more than just the name of a people. The names of many of the peoples of Europe were different, changing over time, and this was a source of confusion in written sources and sources and a subject of speculation in later times. Only self-name has objective meaning. For the historical identification of a people, the fourth fundamental feature is also important - the level of social culture: settled state, semi-nomadic, nomadic.
In the first millennium BC. Most of the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, the southern part of the Alps and the Adriatic coast was occupied by the Etruscans. They determined the development of this region in the last millennium BC. and in the first half of the 1st millennium AD. During the rise of Rome, the territory of Etruscan cities extended from the Alps, from the Veneto-Istrian region to Pompeii. It was one of the most developed ancient civilizations. The unique features of Etruscan culture - the presence of writing in modern letter form, the presence of a fully developed religion, as well as a unique social and federal organization of society - determined the development of this region and all of Europe for many centuries.
Archeology shows a high degree of cultural commonality between the population of the Apennine Peninsula, the Alps and the Adriatic. The degree of this community was, in a number of ways (at least in socio-political development), higher than the community of scattered Greek cities of that time. This is not surprising, because the population lived much more compactly due to the uniqueness of the peninsula and its geographical location and had closer connections than the population of Greek cities scattered over thousands of kilometers along the coasts of various seas.
Rome as a real stable settlement arose as one of the cities of the Etruscan federation - league of cities and, like all other Etruscan cities, was initially ruled by kings. During the reign of Servius Tullius and Superbus Tarquinius, Rome became a self-governing, although still economically dependent city. In Rome, Etruscan religion, writing, numbers, calendar, and holidays were in effect. After the political structure of Rome changed - the transition to republican rule, which gave some rights to the plebeians ("latum pedes") - the city became more independent, but this had economic consequences. Without its own region, Rome experienced food difficulties. Bread and other products were imported from the sea, through Ostia (Ustia) to the mouth of the Tiber. Rome needed its own agricultural region. As a result of negotiations with the Etruscan kings and military campaigns, mainly with the Samnites, a small area southeast of Rome was annexed. The annexed region included some Etruscan cities (Tusculum, Praeneste, Rutula), as well as part of the adjacent lands of the Sabines, Mars, Samnites, and Volscians. This “international” region began to be called “Latium” - it is translated from Latin as “expansion, encirclement”. In ancient, pre-Roman times, the population of this area were Etruscans, Sabines, Marsi, Samnites, Oscans, Umbrians. Of the tribes, only the Pomptinians, Uphentinians, and Hernics are known. Latins were not counted among the ancient peoples who lived here. Archaeological evidence shows that Etruscan culture was also dominant in Latia. On one of the picturesque White Hills of this area near the Etruscan city of Tusculum, in which such famous Etruscans as Cato Priscus and Cicero were born, one of the statues of the main ancient Etruscan god Jeova (Jupiter) was installed. Rome proposed a new political system - a republic, which after several centuries was established throughout the Etruscan federation. Wearing the Etruscan tunic (toga) was a sign of Roman citizenship.
It has been established that the basis of the writing of Rome is the Etruscan alphabet and writing. During the period of the rise of Rome, no one except the Etruscans possessed alphabetic writing. The Etruscans had intensive contact with the Phoenicians (Carthage), who, as is known, passed on their alphabet to the Greeks. The earliest known alphabetic text in history is the inscription on the “cup of Nestor”, found in the territory of the Etruscans. The Roman alphabet (Latin alphabet) is a (Roman) variant of the Etruscan alphabet. Just like, say, Ionic, Athenian, Corinthian and others are variants of the Greek alphabet. In Rome, the font of ornate Etruscan letters was changed to simpler and easier to write. The Etruscan script continued to be used by priests and on special occasions. The language of Rome has the structure of the Etruscan language. The Latin vocabulary was formed on the basis of the Etruscan language and the language of other ethnic groups that arrived in Rome, mainly the Sabines. The pantheon of ancient gods of Rome was made up of the ancient gods of the Etruscans. Services in the temples of Rome were held according to ancient Etruscan books. Not only kings, but also some of the future Roman emperors and many prominent figures were Etruscans by origin.
In modern historiography there is an insoluble problem, which consists in the fact that there is no reliable historical data, neither written nor archaeological, confirming the reality of the ancient tribes of the “Latins”; they were not known either before the rise of Rome, or for three to five centuries after the founding of the city. It is necessary to distinguish between the terms “ancient Latins” and “latins” (late). In early Roman times, the ancient population of the territory of the future Latium consisted of various peoples, among whom the ancient tribe of “Latins” was not known. They were not known either to the very first ancient authors - contemporaries of the emergence of Rome and the authors of Greek mythology, Hesiod, Homer, or to the later historians Thucydides and Herodotus, who wrote 300 years after the founding of the city. There are no words with the stem “Latin”, “Latin” in the first published code of laws of Rome “XII Tables”, written two centuries after the emergence of the city. The first literary use of the term "Latin society" appeared only more than five centuries after the rise of Rome and usually designated the incomplete citizens of the republic. There is also no archaeological evidence confirming the existence of the ancient Latin tribe, there is nothing that could be somehow connected with them. Widespread and massive attempts to find some real evidence of the existence of the “Latin” tribe in the territory of Latium were undertaken again in the second half of the last century. But they again did not give the desired result: several more Etruscan cities were discovered in Latia.
Thus, history does not have any data, either written or archaeological, confirming the reality of the existence of the ancient “Latin” tribes. The terms “Latin”, “Latium”, “Latins” arose 3-5 centuries after the rise of Rome. These terms are not directly related to each other, but have a common linguistic root - the Latin word "latum", meaning "broad, general". The word "Latin" can be translated from the "Latin" language as "broad, general", and does not require anything additional to explain its meaning and origin. Such a neutral name for a language is not unique in history - the same name arose for the first common Greek language; it was called "koine dialectos", which in Greek has the same meaning as "Latin language" in Latin - that is, "common language". The Koine people also never existed. Subsequently, this first name for the Greek language ceased to be widely used, and the question of the possible existence of the Koine tribes itself disappeared. But this did not happen with the name of the language of Rome; it was preserved and gave rise to the hypothesis of ancient Latins. Something similar is observed today in the process of mastering the English language by the backward population of the Pacific Islands. The resulting hybrid received the contemptuous name “pidgin English”, or simply “pidgin”, i.e. literally: "pig English". And it is possible that in two thousand years historians will insist on the existence of a separate “pidgin” people.
The language called “Latin” was formed in the Roman Republic several centuries after the emergence of Rome as a result of the mixing of several languages. The small agricultural region of Latium received a similar “Latin” name, which is translated from Latin as “expansion surrounding.” The socio-legal term "Latin" was not ethnic and applied to any resident of the Roman Republic who did not have full Roman citizenship and did not have all "Roman" rights. A Roman, for example, could not be enslaved by another Roman; at the same time, a Roman could have a Latin slave.
Two centuries after the transition to a republic, the official language of Rome and the language of the army began to be called “Latin,” but the republic itself, its citizens, law, then the empire, emperors, and all power structures remained “Roman.” The terms "Roman" and "Latin" are not equivalent, they have different origins and different content.
The terms "Latin", "Latium", "Latins" are not the only terms whose etymology goes back to the common root "latum". The supreme god of the ancient pantheon of Etruscan gods Jeova (Jupiter) in the Roman Republic was also called “Latiar” (another altar of Jeova was located at the same time in Macedonia); "latus fundus" meant "large farm, latifundia", "lati-clavus" means "wide stripe" and is famous for being worn on their togas by senators, "latum pedes" by plebeians and the bulk of the Roman army, etc. In other words, all Latin words with the stem lati(n) come from one common root - the adjective “wide, common”. And history does not have any evidence to support any ethnic content of these words.
A basic linguistic fact of European history is that Latin and Slavic languages have a common genetic root. The origin of a language cannot be established simply on the basis of the coincidence of some words, because Many words, as a result of the development of contacts, moved from one language to another. All modern languages have a large number of words borrowed from Latin.
The genetic root of a language is the structure of its grammar. Words can easily change, borrow and move from one language to another, but the grammatical structure, structure of the language, its morphology, and syntax do not change. The structure of the language, unlike vocabulary and phonetics, is conservative and, as history shows, has not changed for thousands of years. The stability of grammar is demonstrated by all known languages with a long history. Examples are Greek and Latin. The grammar of the Greek language has not changed in 2800 years. All principles of grammar and categories have been preserved, only some endings in several types of declensions and phonetics have changed. (Phonetics may differ at the same time in different places of residence.) At the same time, the vocabulary of the Greek language has changed almost completely, and it has changed more than once.
The grammar of the Latin language demonstrates the same stability: the structure of the grammar, all its categories, principles, forms, constructions have been preserved. Only some endings have changed. At the same time, the vocabulary of the Latin language was changing. In general, any living language is an example of how much its vocabulary has changed in a relatively short period of time. Every European language currently has a so-called “old language” is its predecessor, which was used only 7-8 centuries ago. But what each language has in common with its “old language” is the structure of the language and grammar.
(to be continued)