In the development of mankind, there are two types of movement - forward and backward. In the first case it will develop progressively, in the second – regressively. Sometimes both of these processes occur simultaneously in society, but in different areas. Therefore, there are different types of progress and regression. So what is progress and regression? We will talk about this, as well as examples of progress, in this article.

What is progress and regression?

The concept of progress can be characterized as follows. Translated from Latin, progress means “moving forward.” Progress is a direction in social development that is characterized by movement from lower to higher forms. From imperfect to more perfect, to better, that is, moving forward.

Regression is the exact opposite of progress. This word also comes from Latin and means “moving backwards.” Consequently, regression is a movement from higher to lower, from perfect to less perfect, changes for the worse.

What is progress like?

There are several types of progress in society. These include the following.

1. Social. It implies a social development that follows the path of justice, creating conditions for a decent, good life, for the development of the personality of each person. And also the fight against the reasons that hinder this development.
2. Material or economic progress. This is development in the process of which the material needs of people are satisfied. To achieve such satisfaction, it is necessary, in turn, to develop science and technology, and improve the standard of living of people.
3. Scientific. It is characterized by a significant deepening of knowledge about the surrounding world, people, and society. As well as the continuation of the development of the surrounding earth and outer space.
4. Scientific and technical. It means progress in the development of science, which is aimed at developing the technical side, improving the production sphere, and automating the processes occurring in it.
5. Cultural or spiritual progress. Marked by the development of the moral side of life, the formation of altruism, which has a conscious basis, and the gradual transformation of a person’s personality. It is assumed that from simply a consumer of material goods, a person over time turns into a creator, engaged in self-development and self-improvement.

Progress criteria

The topic of progress criteria has been controversial at different times. It has not ceased to be so today. Let us present some of the criteria, which together are evidence of progressive social development.

1. Development of the production sector, the entire economy, expansion of people's freedom in relation to nature, living standards, growth in the well-being of the people, and quality of life in general.
2. Achieving a high level of democratization of society.
3. The level of personal and public freedom, which is enshrined at the legislative level. The existence of opportunities for the realization of personality, for its comprehensive development, for the use of freedom within reasonable limits.
4. Moral improvement of all representatives of society.
5. Spread of enlightenment, development of science and education. Expanding the range of human needs related to knowledge of the world - scientific, philosophical, aesthetic.
6. Length of human life.
7. Increased goodness and feelings of happiness.

Signs of regression

Having examined the criteria of progress, let’s briefly talk about the signs of regression in society. These include the following:

• Economic decline, the onset of crisis.
• Significant decline in living standards.
• Increased mortality, decreased life expectancy.
• The onset of a difficult demographic situation, a decrease in the birth rate.
• The spread of diseases above normal levels, epidemics, the presence of a large number of people with chronic diseases.
• A decline in moral standards, the level of education of people, and culture as a whole.
• The use of forceful as well as declarative methods in solving problems.
• Suppression of manifestations of freedom by violent means.
• General weakening of the country (state), deterioration of the internal and international situation.

Progressive Events

Here are examples of progress observed throughout human history in various areas that were of great importance.

• In ancient times, man learned to make fire, create tools, and cultivate the land.
• There was a change from the slave system to the feudal system, as a result of which slavery was abolished.
• Printing was invented and the first universities opened in Europe.
• New lands were developed during the period of the Great Geographical Discoveries.
• The United States became a sovereign nation and adopted the Declaration of Independence.
• French educators organized activities aimed at proclaiming new social ideals, the main of which was freedom.
• During the Great French Revolution, the class division of people was abolished, freedom, equality, and fraternity were proclaimed.

Achievements of science and technology in the 20th century

Although scientific discoveries have been made over a long period of time, the true century of progress is the 20th century. Let us give examples of scientific discoveries that have significantly contributed to the progressive development of mankind. In the 20th century the following were discovered and invented:

• The very first plane.
• Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.
• A diode is an electron tube.
• Conveyor.
• Synthetic rubber.
• Insulin.
• TV.
• Cinema with sound.
• Penicillin.
• Neutron.
• Uranium fission.
• Ballistic missile.
• Atomic bomb.
• Computer.
• DNA structure.
• Integrated circuits.
• Laser.
• Space flights.
• Internet.
• Genetic Engineering.
• Microprocessors.
• Cloning.
• Stem cells.

Progress and regression of society - (from the Latin progressus - movement forward), a direction of development, which is characterized by a transition from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect. The concept of progress is opposite to the concept of regression. Belief in progress is one of the basic values ​​of industrial society. Progress is directly related to freedom and can be considered as its steady historical realization. Progress can be defined as progressive development, in which all changes, especially qualitative ones, follow an ascending line, revealed as a transition from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect. On the cultural and value horizon of humanity, the idea of ​​progress appeared relatively late. Antiquity did not know it. The Middle Ages did not know it either. Truly faith in progress began to assert itself in the struggle against religious faith for the spiritual emancipation of man. The triumph of the idea of ​​progress, corresponding moods and expectations occurred in the 18th century, the century of enlightenment, reason, faith in the great liberating mission of science, objectively true knowledge. Faith in progress becomes something taken for granted, and in depth, inner conviction, readiness to serve, follow and obey - even akin to faith in God. An attribute is assigned to progress
historical immutability.

Progress and regression are dialectical opposites; development cannot be understood as only progress or only regression. In the evolution of living organisms and the development of society, progressive and regressive tendencies are combined and interact in complex ways. Moreover, the relationship between these trends in living matter and in society is not limited to connections of alternation or cyclicity (when development processes are thought of by analogy with the growth, flourishing and subsequent withering, aging of living organisms). Being dialectically opposed, progress and regression of society are inextricably linked and included in each other. “...Every progress in organic development,” Engels noted, “is at the same time a regression, because it consolidates one-sided development and excludes the possibility of development in many other directions”102.

In the twentieth century, progress was made ambiguously. The First World War dealt a tangible blow to guaranteed progress. She showed
the futility of hopes for a significant improvement in human nature. Subsequent events only strengthened this trend of disappointment in progress. In the conditions of post-industrial society, the realization has come that progress in itself is neither automatic nor guaranteed, but that we must fight for it. And that progress is ambiguous, that it carries with it negative social consequences. When applied to an individual, progress means belief in success, approval and encouragement of productive activity. Success and personal achievements determine a person’s social status and his own progress. A success-oriented lifestyle is extremely creative and dynamic. It allows a person to be optimistic, not to lose heart in case of failure, to strive for something new and tirelessly create it, to easily part with the past
and be open to the future.

Progress and regression in the development of society

All societies are in constant development, in the process of change and transition from one state to another. At the same time, sociologists distinguish two directions and three main forms of movement of society. Let's look at the essence first progressive and regressive directions.

Progress(from Latin progressus - movement forward, us-infantry) means development with an upward tendency, movement from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect. It leads to positive changes in society and manifests itself, for example, in the improvement of the means of production and labor, in the development of the social division of labor and the growth of its productivity, in new achievements in science and culture, improvement in people’s living conditions, their comprehensive development and etc.

Regression(from Latin regressus - reverse movement), on the contrary, presupposes development with a downward tendency, movement backward, transition from higher to lower, which leads to negative consequences. It can manifest itself, say, in a decrease in production efficiency and the level of people’s well-being, in the spread of smoking, drunkenness, drug addiction in society, deterioration in public health, an increase in mortality, a drop in the level of spirituality and morality of people, etc.

Which path is society taking: the path of progress or regression? People's idea of ​​the future depends on the answer to this question: does it bring a better life or does it not promise anything good?

Ancient Greek poet Hesiod (8th-7th centuries BC) wrote about five stages in the life of mankind.

The first stage was "golden age", when people lived easily and carelessly.

Second - "silver Age"- the beginning of the decline of morality and piety. Descending lower and lower, people found themselves in "Iron Age" when evil and violence reign everywhere, justice is trampled underfoot.

How did Hesiod see the path of humanity: progressive or regressive?

Unlike Hesiod, ancient philosophers

Plato and Aristotle viewed history as a cyclical cycle, repeating the same stages.

The development of the idea of ​​historical progress is associated with the achievements of science, crafts, arts, and the revitalization of public life during the Renaissance.

One of the first to put forward the theory of social progress was the French philosopher Anne Robbert Turgot (1727-1781).

His contemporary, French philosopher-enlightenment Jacques Antoine Condorcet (1743-1794) sees historical progress as a path of social progress, at the center of which is the upward development of the human mind.

K. Marx believed that humanity was moving toward greater mastery of nature, the development of production and man himself.

Let us recall the facts from the history of the 19th-20th centuries. Revolutions were often followed by counter-revolutions, reforms by counter-reforms, radical changes in the political system by the restoration of the old order.

Think about what examples from national or world history can illustrate this idea.

If we tried to depict the progress of mankind graphically, we would end up with not a straight line, but a broken line, reflecting ups and downs. There have been periods in the history of different countries when reaction triumphed, when the progressive forces of society were persecuted. For example, what disasters did fascism bring to Europe: the death of millions, the enslavement of many peoples, the destruction of cultural centers, bonfires from the books of the greatest thinkers and artists, the cult of brute force.

Individual changes occurring in different areas of society can be multidirectional, i.e. progress in one area may be accompanied by regression in another.

Thus, throughout history, the progress of technology can be clearly traced: from stone tools to iron ones, from hand tools to machines, etc. But the progress of technology and the development of industry led to the destruction of nature.

Thus, progress in one area was accompanied by regression in another. The progress of science and technology has had mixed consequences. The use of computer technology has not only expanded the possibilities of work, but has led to new diseases associated with prolonged work at the display: visual impairment, etc.

The growth of large cities, the complication of production and the rhythms of everyday life have increased the load on the human body and created stress. Modern history, like the past, is perceived as the result of the creativity of people, where both progress and regression take place.

Humanity as a whole is characterized by upward development. Evidence of global social progress, in particular, can be not only an increase in material well-being and social security of people, but also a weakening of confrontation (confrontation – from Latin con – against + irons – front – confrontation, confrontation) between classes and peoples of different countries, the desire for peace and cooperation of an ever-increasing number of earthlings, the establishment of political democracy, the development of universal human morality and a genuine humanistic culture, of everything human in man, finally.

Further, scientists consider an important sign of social progress to be the growing tendency towards human liberation - liberation (a) from state suppression, (b) from the dictates of the collective, (c) from any exploitation, (d) from the isolation of life space, (e) from fear for their safety and future. In other words, a trend towards expanding and increasingly effective protection of civil rights and freedoms of people throughout the world.

In terms of the degree to which citizens' rights and freedoms are ensured, the modern world presents a very motley picture. Thus, according to estimates of the American organization in support of democracy in the world community, Freedom House, founded in 1941, which annually publishes a “freedom map” of the world, from 191 countries on the planet in 1997

– 79 were completely free;

– partially free (which includes Russia) – 59;

– unfree – 53. Among the latter, the 17 most unfree states (category “worst of the worst”) are highlighted – such as Afghanistan, Burma, Iraq, China, Cuba, Saudi Arabia, North Korea, Syria, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and others . The geography of the spread of freedom across the globe is curious: its main centers are concentrated in Western Europe and North America. At the same time, out of 53 African countries, only 9 are recognized as free, and among Arab countries - not a single one.

Progress can also be seen in human relationships themselves. More and more people understand that they must learn to live together and abide by the laws of society, must respect other people's living standards and be able to find compromises (compromise - from Latin compromissum - agreement based on mutual concessions), must suppress their own aggressiveness, appreciate and protect nature and everything that previous generations have created. These are encouraging signs that humanity is steadily moving towards relationships of solidarity, harmony and goodness.

Regression is more often of a local nature, that is, it concerns either individual societies or spheres of life, or individual periods. For example, while Norway, Finland and Japan (our neighbors) and other Western countries were confidently climbing the steps of progress and prosperity, the Soviet Union and its “comrades in socialist misfortune” [Bulgaria, East Germany (East Germany) , Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and others] regressed, sliding uncontrollably in the 1970s and 80s. into the abyss of collapse and crisis. Moreover, progress and regression are often intricately intertwined.

So, in Russia in the 1990s, both of them clearly take place. The decline in production, the severance of previous economic ties between factories, the decline in the standard of living of many people and the increase in crime are obvious “marks” of regression. But there is also the opposite - signs of progress: the liberation of society from Soviet totalitarianism and the dictatorship of the CPSU, the beginning of the movement towards the market and democracy, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, significant freedom of the media, the transition from the Cold War to peaceful cooperation with the West, etc.

Questions and tasks

1. Define progress and regression.

2. How was the path of humanity viewed in ancient times?

What changed about this during the Renaissance?

4. Given the ambiguity of change, is it possible to talk about social progress as a whole?

5. Think about the questions posed in one of the philosophical books: is it progress to replace an arrow with a firearm, or a flintlock with a machine gun? Can the replacement of hot tongs with electric current be considered progress? Justify your answer.

6. Which of the following can be attributed to the contradictions of social progress:

A) the development of technology leads to the emergence of both means of creation and means of destruction;

B) the development of production leads to a change in the social status of the worker;

C) the development of scientific knowledge leads to a change in a person’s ideas about the world;

D) human culture undergoes changes under the influence of production.

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Unified State Exam. Society. Topic 6. Progress. Regression

Any development is a movement forward or backward. Likewise, society can develop either progressively or regressively, and sometimes both of these processes are characteristic of society, only in different spheres of life. What is progress and regression?

Progress

Progress - from from lat. progressus - movement forward, This is a direction in the development of society, which is characterized by movement from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect, this is a progressive movement forward, to the better.

Social progress is a world-historical process, which is characterized by the ascent of humanity from primitiveness (savagery) to civilization, which is based on scientific, technical, political, legal, moral and ethical achievements.

Types of progress in society

Social	The development of society along the path of justice, the creation of conditions for the comprehensive development of the individual, for his decent life, the fight against the reasons that interfere with this development.
Material	The process of satisfying the material needs of humanity, which is based on the development of science, technology, and improving people's living standards.
Scientific	Deepening knowledge of the surrounding world, society and people, further development of micro- and macrocosmos.
Scientific and technical	The development of science is aimed at developing technology, improving the production process, and its automation.
Cultural (spiritual)	The development of morality, the formation of conscious altruism, the gradual transformation of a human consumer into a human creator, self-development and self-improvement of the individual.

Progress criteria

The question of the criteria of progress (that is, the signs, grounds that allow us to judge phenomena as progressive) has always evoked ambiguous answers in different historical eras. I will give some points of view regarding the criteria for progress.

Modern criteria for progress are not so clear. There are many of them, together they testify to the progressive development of society.

Criteria for social progress of modern scientists:

• Development of production, the economy as a whole, increase in human freedom in relation to nature, living standards of people, growth of people's well-being, quality of life.
• Level of democratization of society.
• The level of freedom enshrined in law, the opportunities provided for the comprehensive development and self-realization of the individual, the reasonable use of freedom.
• Moral improvement of society.
• The development of enlightenment, science, education, the increase in human needs for scientific, philosophical, aesthetic knowledge of the world.
• Life expectancy of people.
• Increasing human happiness and goodness.

However, progress is not only a positive thing. Unfortunately, humanity both creates and destroys. Skillful, conscious use of the achievements of the human mind is also one of the criteria for the progress of society.

The contradictions of social progress

Positive and negative consequences of progress	Examples
Progress in some areas can lead to stagnation in others.	A striking example is the period of Stalinism in the USSR. In the 1930s, a course was set for industrialization, and the pace of industrial development increased sharply. However, the social sphere developed poorly, light industry operated on a residual basis. The result is a significant deterioration in people's quality of life.
The fruits of scientific progress can be used both for the benefit and harm of people.	The development of information systems, the Internet, is the greatest achievement of humanity, opening up vast opportunities for it. However, at the same time, computer addiction appears, a person withdraws to the virtual world, and a new disease has appeared - “computer gaming addiction.”
Making progress today can lead to negative consequences in the future.	An example is the development of virgin lands during the reign of N. Khrushchev. At first a rich harvest was indeed obtained, but after a while soil erosion appeared.
Progress in a water country does not always lead to progress in another.	Let us remember the state of the Golden Horde. At the beginning of the 13th century there was a huge empire, with a large army and advanced military equipment. However, progressive phenomena in this state became a disaster for many countries, including Rus', which was under the yoke of the horde for more than two hundred years.

To summarize, I would like to note that humanity has a characteristic desire to move forward, opening up new and new opportunities. However, we need to remember, and scientists first of all, what the consequences of such a progressive movement will be, whether it will turn into a disaster for people. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the negative consequences of progress to a minimum.

Regression

The opposite path of social development to progress is regression (from the Latin regressus, that is, movement in the opposite direction, return back) - movement from more perfect to less perfect, from higher forms of development to lower ones, movement back, changes for the worse.

Signs of regression in society

• Deterioration in people's quality of life
• Decline in the economy, crisis phenomena
• Increase in human mortality, decrease in average standard of living
• Deteriorating demographic situation, declining birth rate
• An increase in the incidence of people, epidemics, a large percentage of the population having

Chronic diseases.

• The decline in morality, education, and culture of society as a whole.
• Resolving issues using forceful, declarative methods and techniques.
• Reducing the level of freedom in society, its violent suppression.
• Weakening of the country as a whole and its international position.

Solving problems associated with the regressive processes of society is one of the tasks of the government and the country's leadership. In a democratic state that follows the path of civil society, which is Russia, public organizations and the opinion of the people are of great importance. Problems need to be solved, and solved together - by the authorities and the people.

Material prepared by: Melnikova Vera Aleksandrovna

Concept of social progress

When starting a new business, a person believes that it will be successfully completed. We believe in the best and hope for the best. Our grandfathers and fathers, enduring all the hardships of life, the hard times of war, working tirelessly, were convinced that we, their children, would have a happy life, easier than the one they lived. And it has always been like this.

During the 16th – 17th centuries, when Europeans expanded the expanses of the Oikumene (the Promised Land) by discovering the New World, when new branches of science began to emerge, the word “ progress».

This concept is based on the Latin word “progressus” - “moving forward”.

In the modern scientific dictionary under social progress began to understand the totality of all progressive changes in society, its development from simple to complex, the transition from a lower level to a higher one.

However, even inveterate optimists, convinced that the future must inevitably be better than the present, realized that the process of renewal does not always proceed smoothly and progressively. Sometimes, forward movement is followed by a rollback - a backward movement, when society can slide into more primitive stages of development. This process was called " regression" Regression is opposed to progress.

Also in the development of society, we can distinguish periods when there is no obvious improvement, forward dynamics, but there is no movement back. This state began to be called the word “ Withstagnation" or "stagnation". Stagnation is an extremely dangerous phenomenon. It means that “inhibition mechanisms” have turned on in society, that it is not able to perceive the new, advanced. A society in a state of stagnation rejects this new, striving at all costs to preserve old, outdated structures, and resists renewal. Even the ancient Romans emphasized: “If you don’t move forward, you move backward.”

Progress, regression and stagnation do not exist separately in human history. They are intricately intertwined, replacing each other, complementing the picture of social development. Often, when studying historical events, for example, reforms or revolutions, you have come across such concepts as “counter-reforms”, “reactionary turn”. For example, when considering the “great reforms” of Alexander II, which affected all spheres of Russian society, led to the overthrow of serfdom, the creation of classless local governments (zemstvos and city councils), an independent judiciary), we cannot help but note the reaction that followed them – “counter-reforms” of Alexander III. This usually happens when innovations are too significant and fast and the social system does not have time to successfully adapt to them. A correction of these changes, a kind of “shrinkage” and “dwindling”, is inevitable. The famous Russian publicist M.N. Katkov, a contemporary of the “great reforms,” wrote that Russia had moved too far along the path of liberal reforms, that it was time to stop, look back, and understand how these changes relate to Russian reality. And, of course, make amendments. As you know from history lessons, it was in the 1880s and early 1890s that the powers of jury courts were limited and stricter control over the activities of zemstvos was established by the state.

The reforms of Peter I, in the words of A.S. Pushkin, “raised Russia on its hind legs,” caused significant shocks for our country. And to a certain extent, as the modern Russian historian A. Yanov aptly defined, the “de-Petrovization” of the country was required after the death of Tsar Peter.

However, the reaction should not be viewed only in a negative way. Although most often, in history lessons we talk about its negative side. A reactionary period is always a curtailment of reforms and an attack on the rights of citizens. “Arakcheevshchina”, “Nikolaev reaction”, “dark seven years” - these are examples of such an approach.

But the reaction is different. It can be a response to both liberal reforms and conservative transformations.

So, we noted that social progress is a complex and ambiguous concept. In its development, society does not always follow the path of improvement. Progress can be complemented by regressive periods and stagnation. Let us consider another side of social progress, which convinces us of the contradictory nature of this phenomenon.

Progress in one area of ​​social life, for example, in science and technology, does not necessarily have to be complemented by progress in other areas. Moreover, even what we consider progressive today can turn into a disaster tomorrow or in the foreseeable future. Let's give an example. Many great discoveries of scientists, for example, the discovery of X-rays or the phenomenon of nuclear fission of uranium, gave rise to new types of terrible weapons - weapons of mass destruction.

Further, progress in one country does not necessarily entail progressive changes in other countries and regions. History gives us many similar examples. The Central Asian commander Tamerlane contributed to the significant prosperity of his country, the cultural and economic rise of its cities, but at what expense? Due to the robbery and ruin of other lands. Colonization of Asia and Africa by Europeans contributed to the growth of wealth and living standards of the peoples of Europe, but in a number of cases preserved archaic forms of social life in the countries of the East. Let's touch on another problem that touches on the topic of social progress. When we talk about “better” or “worst,” “high” or “low,” “primitive” or “complex,” we always mean the subjective characteristics inherent in people. What is progressive for one person may not be progressive for another. It is difficult to talk about progress when we mean the phenomena of spiritual culture and creative activity of people.

Social development will be influenced by both objective factors independent of the will and desires of people (natural phenomena, disasters), and subjective factors determined by the activities of people, their interests, aspirations, and capabilities. It is the action of the subjective factor in history (man) that makes the concept of social progress so complex and contradictory.

Social science. A complete course of preparation for the Unified State Exam Shemakhanova Irina Albertovna

1.16. Concept of social progress

Social development is a change in society that leads to the emergence of new social relations, institutions, norms and values. The characteristic features of social development are three features: irreversibility, direction and regularity.

Irreversibility – this is the constancy of the processes of accumulation of quantitative and qualitative changes.

Focus – these are the lines along which accumulation occurs.

Pattern is a necessary process of accumulation of change.

An important characteristic of social development is the period of time during which it occurs. The result of social development is a new quantitative and qualitative state of a social object, a change in its structure and organization.

Views on the direction of social development

1. Plato, Aristotle, G. Vico, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee: movement along certain steps within a closed cycle (the theory of historical circulation).

2. Religious movements: the prevalence of regression in many areas of society.

3. French enlighteners: continuous renewal and improvement of all aspects of society.

4. Modern researchers: positive changes in some areas of society can be combined with stagnation and regression in others, i.e. a conclusion about the contradictory nature of progress. Humanity as a whole has never regressed, but its forward movement could be delayed and even stopped for a while, which is called stagnation.

The process of social development is inextricably linked with the term “social progress”. Social progress – this direction of development, characterized by a transition from lower to higher, to more advanced forms, is expressed in their higher organization, adaptation to the environment, and growth of evolutionary capabilities.

Criteria for determining progressivity: level of labor productivity and welfare of the population; development of the human mind; improving people's morality; progress of science and technology; development of productive forces, including man himself; degree of personal freedom.

Modern social thought has developed a number of other criteria for social progress: the level of knowledge, the degree of differentiation and integration of society, the nature and level of social solidarity, the liberation of man from the actions of the elemental forces of nature and society, etc. The concept of progress is applicable only to human society. For living and inanimate nature, the concepts should be used development, or evolution(wildlife), and change(inanimate nature). Humanity is continuously improving and moving along the path of social progress. This is a universal law of society. The concept of “development” is broader than the concept of “progress”. All progress is associated with development, but not all development is progress. Regression (reverse movement) - type of development from higher to lower, processes of degradation, lowering the level of organization, loss of ability to perform certain functions.

Basic manifestations of inconsistency progress is an alternation of ups and downs in social development, a combination of progress in one area with regression in another. Thus, the development of industrial production, on the one hand, leads to an increase in the amount of goods produced, to an increase in the urban population, but, on the other hand, this leads to environmental problems, to the fact that young people, leaving the village for the city, lose touch with the national culture, etc.

By its nature, social development is divided into evolutionary And revolutionary. The nature of a particular social development depends on the method of social change. Under evolution understand gradual smooth partial changes in society, which can cover various spheres of society - economic, political, social, spiritual. Evolutionary changes most often take the form of social reforms, involving various measures to transform certain aspects of social life. Reform- this is any degree of improvement in any area of ​​public life, carried out simultaneously, through a series of gradual transformations that do not affect the fundamental foundations, but only change its parts and structural elements.

Types of reforms:

1. by directions: progressive reforms (60–70s of the 19th century by Alexander II); regressive (reactionary) (“counter-reforms” of Alexander III).

2. by areas of change: economic, social, political, etc.).

Under social revolution is understood as a radical, qualitative change in all or most aspects of social life, affecting the foundations of the existing social system. Revolutionary changes are spasmodic character and represent the transition of society from one qualitative state to another. A social revolution is always associated with the destruction of some social relations and the establishment of others. There may be revolutions short-term(February Revolution 1917), long-term(Neolithic revolution).

The relationship between evolutionary and revolutionary forms of social development depends on the specific historical conditions of the state and era.

The inconsistency of progress

1) Society is a complex organism in which different “bodies” function (enterprises, associations of people, government institutions, etc.), and various processes (economic, political, spiritual, etc.) occur simultaneously. Individual processes and changes occurring in different areas of society can be multidirectional: progress in one area may be accompanied by regression in another (for example, technological progress, industrial development, chemicalization and other changes in the field of production have led to the destruction of nature, to irreparable damage to human environment, to undermine the natural foundations of society.

2) The progress of science and technology had ambiguous consequences: discoveries in the field of nuclear physics made it possible not only to obtain a new source of energy, but also to create powerful atomic weapons; The use of computer technology not only unusually expanded the possibilities of creative work, but also caused new diseases, visual impairment, mental disorders, etc.

3) Humanity has to pay a high price for progress. The conveniences of city life are paid for by the “diseases of urbanization”: traffic fatigue, polluted air, street noise and their consequences - stress, respiratory diseases, etc.; Convenience of traveling in a car - due to congestion of city highways and traffic jams. Along with the greatest achievements of the human spirit, the world is experiencing an erosion of cultural and spiritual values, drug addiction, alcoholism, and crime are spreading.

Humanistic criteria of progress: average human life expectancy, infant and maternal mortality, health status, level of education, development of various spheres of culture, sense of satisfaction with life, degree of respect for human rights, attitude towards nature, etc.

In modern social science:

* The emphasis is shifted from the “reform - revolution” dilemma to “reform - innovation”. Under innovation is understood as an ordinary, one-time improvement associated with an increase in the adaptive capabilities of a social organism in given conditions.

* Social development is associated with the process of modernization. Modernization– the process of transition from a traditional, agrarian society to modern, industrial societies.

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Formational and civilizational approaches

3.2.1. Socio-economic formation- a historically specific type of society that arises on the basis of a specific method of production of material goods

Marxism: change of formations primitive - communal, feudal, capitalist, communist (1930 socialism, communism)

Features and concepts of the formational approach

– basis ( production relations that develop between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods). It is based on property relations

- superstructure – a set of legal, political, ideological, religious, cultural and other institutions and relations.

- production relations and productive forces ( people, tools) = method of production

- social revolution– with the development of productive forces and the aging of the production method

Principles of the approach: universality, patterns of change in socio-economic formations

3.2.2.Civilization- level, stage of development of society, material and spiritual culture, following barbarism and savagery. Civilizations differ from each other: in their specific way of life, value system, and ways of interrelating with the outside world.

Today scientists distinguish between Western and Eastern civilizations.

Comparison of Western and Eastern civilization

Progress

3.3.1. Progress (moving forward) – transition from lower to higher, from simple to complex, from imperfect to more perfect.

Social progress- this is a world-historical process, which is characterized by the ascent of humanity from primitiveness (savagery) to civilization, which is based on scientific, technical, political, legal, moral and ethical achievements.

Regression (movement backwards) – transition from higher to lower, degradation.

3.3.2..Types of social progress

· Progress of science and technology (NTP, NTR)

· Progress in the development of productive forces (industrial revolution)

· Political progress (transition from totalitarianism to democracy)

· Progress in the field of culture (recognition of man as the highest value)

3.3.3. Criteria for social progress:

Criterion– an indicator by which something can be assessed

§ development of the human mind

§ development of science and technology

§ development of productive forces

§ growth in living standards, degree of social protection

§ improving people's morality (humanism)

§ degree of individual freedom in society

The contradictions of social progress

3.3.5. Indicators of progressive development of society:

● average human life expectancy

● infant mortality

● health status

● level and quality of education

● level of cultural development

● feeling of satisfaction with life

● degree of respect for human rights

● attitude towards nature

Humanity as a whole has never regressed, but has stopped developing for a while - stagnation

The most difficult problem in the theory of progress is the question of the main objective criterion. Is there really an accurate measure of the level of social progress? What are the indicators that generally reflect the main source of social progress? When determining the main criterion of social progress, the interests of different classes collide. Each social class strives to justify a criterion that would meet the interests of this class.

For example, some modern foreign philosophers and sociologists oppose the objective nature of the criterion of social progress. They seek to prove that the solution to the question of progress in the history of society is subjective, since it depends on the choice of the criterion of social progress. And the choice of this criterion is determined by the scale of values ​​chosen by the one who judges progress. Moreover, he does this in accordance with his personal views, sympathies, ideals, etc. With one criterion one can recognize the presence of progress in history, with another one can deny it. All points of view here are equal, since they are all equally subjective.

Thus, A.D. Todd in the book “Theories of Social Progress” writes: “Progress is a human concept. So human that everyone thinks about it in their own way.” The French philosophical dictionary edited by A. Lalande says that progress “is an essentially relative concept, since it depends on what scale of values ​​the one who speaks about progress adheres to.”

Materialism rejects the subjectivist and relativist position of philosophers and sociologists about social progress. The study shows that progress in society is an objective pattern that is accessible to strictly scientific research. Therefore, the main criterion of social progress must be objective. According to him, it is the productive forces that are the determining reason for the progressive development of the entire history of mankind and therefore serve as an objective indicator of the level of resolution of contradictions between society and nature.

Thus, The main objective criterion of social progress is the development of productive forces. It is this that forms the basis of unity and connection in world history, and represents that continuous line of ascent that runs through all social processes. Ultimately, all human activity is focused in changes in productive forces, no matter in what sphere of the social organism it is carried out. This criterion is of a general historical (general sociological) nature and applies to all social formations that have existed in history. It makes it possible to determine for each formation its historical place in the forward movement of humanity.

As the study shows, the question of the main objective criterion of social progress comes down to finding out what is the beginning of the progressive development of society, or what element of the social organism changes first? Indeed, those objective criteria by which one can determine whether a given phenomenon is progressive or reactionary and to what extent depend on the level and nature of the development of the productive forces. Whatever the productive forces are, such is ultimately the whole society. It is also necessary to emphasize that socio-economic formations “situated” in history precisely in accordance with the level and nature of the development of the productive forces.

Consequently, the social system (socio-economic system, politics, ideology, morality, etc.), which most stimulates the development of productive forces, creates the greatest scope for them, is the most progressive. Therefore, everything that is in production relations, in the content of ideas, views, theories, moral norms, etc. promotes the further development of productive forces, works for the idea of ​​progress. And on the contrary, everything that slows down this development is associated with regression. Another thing is that there is no automatic dependence.

Progress in the field of production does not always directly affect progress in spiritual life, for example, in art or morality. The connection between the development of various phenomena of the spiritual life of society, on the one hand, and the needs of the development of productive forces, on the other, is mediated by the diversity and complexity of social relations, and it is sometimes very difficult to establish this connection. In the history of exploitative formations there are many facts when the progress of the productive forces was ensured by cruel and violent methods associated with the violation of elementary norms of humanity. According to K. Marx, this kind of progress was likened to “a disgusting pagan idol, which did not want to drink nectar except from the skulls of the murdered.”

Modern foreign sociologists quite often absolutize the role of technology, especially computers, in the development of society and consider it the main criterion of their own progress. However, this is not true. Technology, computers, and means of production in general are just one of the elements of the productive forces. Their other element is people, the direct producers of material and spiritual goods. Moreover, the working masses are the main element in the productive forces of society. Therefore, the most important indicator of the progressiveness of a socio-economic system is the opportunities that it creates for the comprehensive development of the abilities and creative activity of workers, and the satisfaction of their material and spiritual needs.

Therefore, when determining the superiority of a particular social system, it is necessary to compare, first of all, the opportunities that it provides for the development of the productive forces as a whole. These opportunities are usually realized in higher rates of development of social production, the widespread dissemination of culture among the masses of workers, their full involvement in managing the affairs of society, etc.

With all the complexity of social development, its main line is forward movement, and the process of ascent from lower to higher not only continues steadily, but accelerates from formation to formation. This can be seen already from the very duration of the existence of the formations: the primitive communal system is 40–50 thousand years, and the entire written history is a little more than 5 thousand years. Of these: slavery – 3–3.5 thousand years; feudalism - 1.5 thousand years; capitalism – several centuries; socialism - several decades.

The most general indicator of the development of productive forces, or an objective criterion of social progress, is the growth rate of labor productivity. Labor productivity itself reflects only the level of development of the productive forces of society. And the growth rate of labor productivity also reflects the nature of the productive forces, i.e. the specifics of the relationship between direct producers and the means of production.

Any new socio-economic formation has higher rates of growth in labor productivity compared to the previous one. For example, labor productivity under capitalism develops 20–40 thousand times faster than under the primitive communal system, 100–150 times faster than in a slave society, 50–60 times faster than in the era of feudalism.

It is also necessary to keep in mind that here we cannot limit ourselves to a simple comparison of the levels of production development currently achieved by countries with different social systems. After all, many countries in which a democratic system is being established have had or are having to overcome technical and economic backwardness inherited from the past, as well as difficulties caused by the resistance of reactionary forces, imposed wars, etc. That is why it takes some time for them to catch up with countries that industrialized and computerized much earlier. After all, progress usually appears as the cumulative result of the upward development of all aspects of social life. It is measured by a whole system of criteria, each of which has its place and purpose in determining the level of progressive development of society. In this system there is a hierarchy and subordination. There are basic and non-basic criteria, defining and conditional.

In the hierarchy of criteria for social progress, the development of productive forces is of decisive importance. Other criteria operating in the sphere of morality, science, philosophy, etc., only reflect phenomena that arise on the basis of a certain level and nature of the development of productive forces. For example, the criterion of moral progress is the growth of individual freedom, the criterion of progress in science can be the process of transforming science into a direct productive force, the criterion of progress in philosophy is the formation of a democratic worldview, etc.

Social progress is a multifaceted phenomenon. It includes progressive development in all spheres of the social organism. The stage of progressively developing human history generally corresponds to a certain socio-economic formation. While maintaining its qualitative state, the formation, like a living, developing organism, goes through the stages of origin, development and decay. The division between the ascending and descending stages of formation is formed by a violation of the correspondence of the parties to social production and its influence on the entire system of social relations.

However, historical development occurs continuously. In the depths of the old socio-economic formation, the prerequisites for another, higher formation arise (in the form of new productive forces, changes in the socio-economic structure, etc.). The old social system prevents the full disclosure of these preconditions. A leap in the forward movement of society means a revolutionary transition to a new, higher socio-economic formation.

Each new formation is born, formed and replaces the old one only on the “shoulders” of this latter, on the basis of its achievements. K. Marx wrote: “Not a single social formation will perish before all the productive forces for which it provides sufficient scope have developed, and new higher production relations never appear before the material conditions of their existence have matured in the depths of the old society itself.” . As long as a given formation develops in an ascending line, everything that contributes to its strengthening is progressive. When a formation enters a period of stagnation and decay, then what breaks its foundations is progressive, and all possible attempts to slow down this process are regressive.

The progressive nature of social development cannot be understood in a simplified way. The history of human society is complex and contradictory. Social progress is its general line, its general orientation. And within the framework of historical progress, there were eras of restoration, and tragic catastrophes, sometimes leading to the death of entire civilizations, and the deepest errors of human thought.

• Marx K., Engels F. Op. T. 23. P. 731. Note.
• Marx K., Engels F. Op. T. 13. P. 7.